\' 









op' 






'^. J' c«-. " .'^ 



o 



'^qX ^o^ °^" -t^O^ 



^-?.^ .^..^.r^ ~ ^ 






^^- 



>s- 






K^ .t^ 



-^^0^ 

^^°- 



C *Vy7;%H/, ^ .^3^ 



^ov^ '^^0^ '"^^v :^ 










'-^^ 0^ 


.'■ ■ ""; I 




■^^ 



^: 



.^ 



-OV* 


■■ '^-o< 







.-^ 



■\> o '^ c ^ *^ ^ 



A' ^ 



-^ 



V. 










0' 









>p 










<^. 


'' * 


. 


, 


--' 


\ 




- 


-* ._. 


•■ 


^ 






u 


.xv* 






■<' 








,9 


•J^ 




* 


^.^^ 








.^^ 


n^ 



.0' 



^oV^ 



^>. 



-.^ 






.0^ 


















^•^"^ 






^ 



.0' 






°oVjC^^'* .V ^>' 



-3'>- 



'^, 






^ * a « ' <t> 






0^^ 



>r, 



'X- 






,0 












.-S-^ 



' ^ x^ '•"" ' '^, ^V^ ^^" "■ 



4-. 



.\ 



. • c " '• ' * O 






A^ '^- -^ '' 



.V 



K^ 



':^ 



'^. 



•^ "., 









V 



V 






,0- 






V 



■\^ 



J^'^ 



-' - J '^ <>* ' '►!.- ...;■ < ,\^ 



J o 

., - -■/• 
o 



x^r^ 



■ o 



•^^ 



- o\ 


::';^' 




V 


^ 

o 


.N^^" 


•X 


\ 


^^ 


0"' 


.s- 


iX', 


/. 


•:y 




■^, 




O 




'?- 




o 



.0 



<^, 



'I' 






.0- '^ 



• o-" 



iiif..-; 






.V 



-^ 



0^" 




Prartiral ^tipB 



•IN- 



AGRICULTURE 



AND 



NATURE STUDY 



By EDGAR S. JONES, City Superintendent Schools 

TAYLORVILLE. ILLINOIS 

HENRY L. FOWKES, County Superintendent Schools 

TAYLORVILLE, ILLINOIS 




a A '' ■' 



"The interest in the teacliing of agriculture is but a part of a much larger 
question, — the movement for teaching by means of things that have come within 
the student's experience. Laboratory work and all manual work are but a part 
of the same movement. The primary purpose of teaching agriculture is not to 
make farmers. It is a human-interest subject. The underlying reason why 
such teaching is desirable is because it brings the school in touch with the 
home life — the daily life of the community. A large part of^our teaching has 
had no relation wliatever to our daily lives. 

The teaching of agriculture will make better farmers who will make more 
money. It will lead more boys to choose farming as a profession, because it 
will open up a field for intellectual life whose existence they never suspected. 
But the great reason for this work is that it is one of the best means of training 
a student's mind, and it is one of the best means because it studies the things 
that come within his experience — the tilings with which and by which he 
lives." ""— G. F. WARREN. 



Copyright, 1914 
By EDGAR S. .JONES and HENRY L. FOWKES. 



SEP -3 I9i4 



.5 4 'J iT 



PREFACE. 

This booklet is intended to be used by the pupils or teachers of the rural 
or village schools as a supplementary book. It is designed as a book of 
material rather than an outline or a manual, containing an abundance of 
practical information and scientific facts. As it was written from the view- 
point of containing many helps and suggestions, it w-as impossible to include 
in a brief survey photogra'phs or drawings. Instead of using the space for 
pictures, a number of bibliographies, scorecards and tables are inserted. 
Such topics as birds, soil, corn and cattle are intended as type lessons. 

The authors realize tha-t Agriculture and Nature Study can best be taught 
by observation and experimentation, hence they have endeavored to furnish 
material that would assist in making keener observers. 

EDGAR S. JONES, 
HENRY L. FOWKES. 
Taylorville, 111., August, 1914. 

Copies of this book may be obtained by addressing FOWKES AND JONES, 
Taylorville, Illinois. 

Price, Forty Cents. 



CONTENTS 



Preface 

Ta-ble of Contents 

Corn 

Wheat 

Legumes 

Soil 

Cattle 

Swine 

Poultry Raising 

Sheep 

Horses 

Birds 

The Foi-est and Ornamental Trees 

Fungi 

Potato 

Insects 

Farm Machinery 

Composition of Air 

Effects of Heat Upon Bodies 

Siphons . . . .' 

Collections and Preservation of Material 

School Gardens and School Yards 

List of Books .... 



for Use in 



the Study 



3 

4 

5 
13 
15 
17 
22 
32 
36 

42 
45 
54 
58 
67 
69 
72 
76 
78 
82 

of Agriculture 82 
84 



^ 



'CI.A3S0205 




CORN. 

KERNEL. — If we know the names of some of the parts of a kernel of corn 
and what purpose these parts serve, it will help in understanding what we 
will hear and read from time to time concerning the corn problem. If a few 
kernels of corn are placed in warm water for four or five hours the parts may 
be easily separated. 

By referring to the above drawing, it will be seen that the general outline 
of a section of a kernel is shown. The part of the kernel that is fastened to 
the cob may be called the cap. The top part is known as the crown. By begin- 
ning at the cap, the covering may be easily removed. This coat or husk 
(hull) appears to be a single covering. How many are there? It may be said 
in brief that there are four parts of the kernel, viz: covering, sta-rch (marked 
four in the drawing), protein cells, being numbered eight and nine, and the 
germ (marked six). The germ is also known as the embryo or heart. The 
end of the germ indicated by A forms the stalk of the plant, while the part 
designated by B becomes the root. We cannot tell by looking at this embryo 
whether it is alive or not, hence the necessity of testing seed-corn before 
planting. The kernel may be defined as a tiny plant with its first food, being 
protected by a covering. Under proper conditions of heat and moisture it will 
begin to grow. 

Just as it requires several kinds of food for a person, so there is needed 
many kinds of food to cause the germ (the little stalk of corn) to become a 
stalk with an ear of corn upon it. 

There are about twelve different foods needed for the corn plant. Six of 
the principal ones are, Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and 
Potassium. The first three are gotten directly fiom the air or water. The 
last three are gotten from the soil by very small root-hairs that may be seen 
on the roots of any plant. Sometimes Nitrogen, Phosphorus or Potassium 
must be placed in the soil before a very large corn crop ca^n be obtained, as 
these are the three foods whose supply is limited. (Clover will take Nitrogen 
from the air and place it in the ground.) Suppose a farmer in September has 
a mow full of hay. About February first he notices that his supply is becom- 
ing low. If he still wishes to feed his horses hay, there are three ways that 
be may do so: 1st. Place more hay in the mow. 2d. Feed the horses every 
third day. 3d. Lessen the amount tiiat he has been feeding. Which way would 
be best? If there is a lack of phosphorus in the soil, it is necessary that there 
be "more hay put in the mow," if we expect the corn plant to be strong and 
healthful and produce a good ear. 

USES OF THE PARTS OF THE KERNEL.— We usually think of corn as 
being the food of horses, cattle and hogs. The hull is made into bran, and 
when mixed with other material is a food for horses and cattle, but it is not 
as good, of course, as the whole kernel. 



The germ is about one-tenth of the entire kernel and furnishes nearly ail 
of the corn-oil. Corn-oil is the highest priced product of the kernel and is 
obtained by pressure. This oil is used extensively in the manufa-cture of soaps, 
paints and oil cloths. It is also mixed with rubber in the making of such 
articles as boots, shoes and rubber tires. After the oil is extracted the residue 
remaining is known as corn-oil cake and is used as a food for cattle. 

The starch of the kernel is used in the making of laundry starch, candies, 
jelly and syrup. La-rge quantities of the starch of corn is used in the making 
of muslins and ginghams. 

The parts marked eight and nine in the sketch contain a large percentage 
of protein — a food for all animals. Some corn contains more protein than 
other, hence it is better for feeding purposes. 

TESTING THE KERNEL. — Two ears of corn may have the same general 
appearance and the germs from different kernels from both ears will appear 
to be alike, but still the embryo from one ear may germinate while those of 
the other will not. With this thought in mind, it is very plain that a better 
stand of corn will be gotten if every ear of corn to be pla-nted is tested in 
some way. 

There are several simple and practical testing methods. One of the most 
simple plans is to place a number of ears of corn upon a bench or table. A 
piece of dampened muslin or other suitable cloth eight or ten feet long and 
six or eight inches wide should be placed alongside of the ears. Five or six 
kernels may now be taken from each ear and placed upon the cloth opposite 
the ear from which it is taken. After the kernels are taken from the ea>rs 
the cloth should be carefully rolled and placed in a warm place and covered 
with moistened paper or cloth. The roll should be dampened frequently. By 
leaving the ears of corn a-s they were first placed and by unrolling the cloth 
after the seeds have sprouted, it will be found that the sprouted ones will 
appear opposite the ears from which they were taken. By this method it will 
be quite easy to discard the bad ears. 

Another method is to take a box two or three inches deep a-nd fill it to 
the depth of one or two inches with shavings, saw-dust, blotting paper, sand 
or cloths. The material in the bottom of the box should be well moistened. 
Cover the layer in the bottom with a cloth or white paper. Divide this cover- 
ing into two-inch squares. Number the squares and the ears of corn. From 
ear number one select five grains and place them on the square numbered 
one. Continue until all the squares are occupied. A wet cloth should be 
placed over the kernels and a lid placed on the box. If possible, the tempera- 
ture of the room must be about seventy or eighty degrees and should never 
be lower than sixty degrees. Prove that tested seed corn will produce more 
bushels of corn per acre than that which is untested. Seed testers tha't are 
heated by oil may be obtained from reputable firms. They are, of course, 
better than any home-made tester. Why? 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION. 

1. Do kernels near the butt of the ear germinate more slowly than those 
taken from the tip or middle? 

2. Is an ea-r of yellow corn with a white cob as good as an ear of yellow 
coin with a red cob? 

3. Should tbe kernels from the tip of the ear be planted? 

4. Corn contains about ten per cent protein and five per cent oil. Do you 
think it would be possible to breed corn so that there would be fifteen per cent 
protein and less starch? 

5. A farmer said: "The way to select seed corn is to select the sta-lks 
during summer time and then later in the season gather the best ears." Was 
he right or wrong? 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Simple test to see if there is starch in corn: Place a drop or two 
of iodine on the white part of two or three ma-shed kernels. The parts that 
turn blue are starch. Try the same test for the potato. 

2. A test to determine whether there is oil in the corn kernel: Mash 



the heart or embryo of the corn kernel on a piece of paper. A grease spot 
appears. Try the embryo of the bean or cotton. 

3. A test to locate the cellulose of the corn kernel: Soak a piece of 
paper and the outer covering of the kernel. A comparison of the texture 
shows them to be the same. Cellulose is the framework of the cells and of 
the tissues in all plant life. 

THE CORN PLANT.— If the study of the corn plant is to be made in 
September or October, the entire plant should be brought before the class. 
A discussion may then follow concerning the culture, improvement, roots, 
stem, leaves, flowers and kernel. 

ROOTS. — There are two general classes of corn roots. The main or 
fibrous roots grow outward and downward from the base of the stalk. They 
are very numerous and often extend out quite a distance from the hill or to 
quite a depth in the soil. For this reason alone the fertilizer that is used 
should be scattered evenly over the ground and then plowed under to the 
depth of at least five or six inches. 

The brace roots, the ones that come from the joints, begin to appear at 
about the time the corn begins to tassel. Quite often some of the brace roots 
do not reach the ground. 

STALKS AND LEAVES.— The joints of the cornstalk are known as nodes 
and the space between the joints are the internodes. By cutting across the 
stalk, thready fibers may be seen. These carry the sap and the food that 
has been prepared in the leaves. By a careful examination it will be seen that 
these tiny tubes extend into the leaves. It may be said that the main purpose 
of the leaves is to make food for the growing plant and for the seed. This is 
done by the sun shining on the food elements in the leaf that have been 
brought to the leaf through these thread-like bodies. 

It will be noticed that the margin of the leaf is much longer than 
the middle of the leaf. Have you ever noticed the curling of the corn leaf? 

In the selection of seed corn the farmer usually chooses the ears from the 
best appearing stalks. Several characteristics are taken into consideration 
in determining wha-t is meant by a good stalk. Among these are, height of 
the stalk, height of the ear from the ground, number of ears per stalk, absence 
of suckers, freeness from smut, good blades, and a short ear stalk. 

FLOWERS. — In a common flower the essential parts are the stamens and 
pistils. The stamens produce the pollen. Under the microscope this dust-like 
pollen ha« the appearance of round-like bodies, something the shape of an egg. 
In producing the seed, the pollen falls upon the pistil. It begins to grow and 
form a tiny tube that continues to grow until it reaches the enlarged pa-rt (the 
ovary) of the pistil. In the ovary are, also, two cells. One of the cells unites 
with one of the ovary cells and forms the germ or heart of the plant. By the 
uniting of the other two cells is formed the food part of the kernel. The 
falling of the pollen on the pistil is called pollination, and the uniting of the 
cells is called fertilization. 

In the corn plant the tassels contain the stamens and the shoots which 
later become the ear, the pistils. 

Each silk is fastened to a round body on the embryo ear. This round body 
is the ovary. The same process of fertilization occurs in the corn plant as 
in any other common plant. 

EARS. — In the study of the ears there should be two or three varieties 
at hand. The short stem that bears the ear is called the shank. Many corn 
growers prefer the drooping ear to the one that is partially erect. Tlie erect 
ear is more liable to be water-soaked and thus become moldy. The drooping 
ear also has the advantage in that it is more easily shucked. 

SELECTION, DRYING AND STORING OF SEED CORN.— It is recognized 
that the better the seed the better the crop. Many farmers select their seed 
early in the fall from the part of the field that has the best general appear- 
ance, while others pass through the field at the time of the tasseling and 
check the best appearing stalks. The blades, height of ear from ground, 
tassels, silks and the condition of the surrounding ears are taken into con- 
sideration in the selection of the stalks. Later in the summer, when the ear 



8 

is well matured and before the frosts come, the ears are gathered from the 
checked stalks, husked and thoroughly dried before the freezes may affect 
the kernels. If a farmer gives the proper attention to the selecting, storing, 
testing, planting and cultivating of seed corn, it is not long until he becomes 
interested in corn breeding. There is always a demand for well selected and 
well bred seed corn. 

After the seed corn has been selected from the field it should be placed 
in a dry, airy room. It may be hung on wires or strings or may be placed on 
shelves prepared for it. Racks can be made which will keep the ears separate 
and at the same time the rack may be suspended from the rafters of the roof 
of an implement shed, hay mow or corn crib. This keeps it from being 
molested by rats or mice. Farmers quite often dry the seed corn in a sum- 
mer kitchen or other room where artificial hea-t may be used. 

Many farmers go a step farther in the selection of seed than has been 
suggested. They make what is known as a breeding plot. This consists of 
several rows of corn selected in the best portion of the field. At the time of 
the tasseling of the corn the inferior tassels are removed in order that there 
may be no self-fertilization. The typical hill of corn should contain at least 
two stalks. The following cha-racteristics should apply to a type stalk in a 
breeding plot: 

1. The brace roots should be well formed. 

2. Gradually tapering from the base to the tassels. 

3. There should not be any suckers. 

4. The ear should be located just a little a-bove the middle point of the 
stalk. 

SHRINKAGE OF CORN. — Corn on the market is generally known as 
"White Corn" and "Yellow Corn," and if mixed it is known as "Corn." There 
are usually three grades of corn. In the grading of the corn there are three 
points, the color, soundness, and moisture. Number 1 means that the yellow 
corn must be yellow, sound, clean and dry. Number 1 white corn, must meet 
the same requirements. Number 2 yellow corn means that it must be three- 
fourths yellow, dry and reasonably clean. Number 2 white, must be about 
seven-eighths white, reasonably clean and dry. Number 3 yellow shall be 
three-fourths yellow, reasonably clean and reasonably dry. Number 3 white 
must be seven-eighths white, reasonably clean and reasonably dry. 

Usually the price in December is much lower than in the following May. 
One of the causes of this is the shrinkage of corn during the year. If the 
corn is gathered during a dry fall and kept in good cribs there is not much 
loss in moisture. Under unfavorable conditions there is often a shrinkage of 
10 per cent. If the corn is weighed when it is placed in the crib and then 
weighed again on removing it, the exact amount of shrinkage can be deter- 
mined. Should the corn remain in a crib for a year, there will be but little 
loss of moisture during the second year. 

VARIETIES OF CORN. — Corn or maize is a native of North America, 
being first cultivated by the English after their settlements in Virginia and 
Massachusetts. There are now several hundred varieties of corn, among 
which may be mentioned Reid's Yellow Dent, Golden Eagle, Boone County 
White, Riley's Favorite, Leaming, and the Silver Mine. 

There are 'Seven species of corn, four being common to the Middle West. 
The most common is the Dent corn. 

The kernel is wedge shaped, the summit being drawn in making it 
indented, hence its name. This is the white or yellow corn of the field. An- 
other species is the sweet corn. It has a shriveled condition and is the kind 
used for canning. The pop-corn is recognized by its small grains. The pop- 
ping is caused by the explosion of the moisture upon the application of intense 
heat. The flint corn is hard and smooth, having rather oval grains. This 
species is used for feeding ca-ttle or for the filling of silos. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD EAR.— Many of the characteristics of 
a good ear of corn must be determined by growing tests, but still there are a 
number of points that may be found by a careful examination of the ear. If 
an ear is cylindrical in form and rounded at the tip and butt, it will have 
more and better kernels than an ear of apparently the same size but which has 



an irregular form. The size and color of the cob have much to do in increas- 
ing the yield in any particular species. The shape, size and arrangement of 
the kernels are factors in bringing about a typical ear. A wedge-shaped kernel 
prevents any waste of space. The corn score card given below suggests the 
detailed characteristics that are considered in comparing a sa-mple ear: 

CORN SCORE CARD. 

Circum- Proportion of 

Length. ference. corn to cob. 

Northern Illinois 9 to 10 6.75 to 7.50 88 percent. 

Central and Southern Illinois 10 to 11 7.00 to 7.75 88 percent. 

Points. Perfect Ear. Sample Ear. 

1. Uniformity of exhibit 5 

2. Shape of ear 10 

3. Length of ear 5 

4. Circumference of ear 5 

5. Tip of ear 5 

6. Butt of ear 5 

7. Kernel uniformity 5 

8. Kernel shape 5 

9. Color, grain and cob 10 

1 0. Space between rows 5 

11. Vitality 10 

12. Space between kernels 10 

13. Trueness to type 10 

14. Proportion of shelled corn to cob 10 

100 

EXPLANATION OF POINTS. 

1. Uniformity of exhibit. — The ears should resemble each other in size 
and shape. 

2. Shape of ear. — The ear is to be cylindrical. It must taper from butt 
to tip, the grains gradually getting smaller or else there will be a row or two 
of kernels dropped. 

3. Length of ear. — Different species require different standards. 

4. Circumference of ears. — This depends upon the depth of the kernel and 
the thickness of the cob. A deep kernel is always desirable. 

5. Tips of ears. — Kernels should be oval shaped and regular in form. The 
part of the tip covered is counted. 

6. Butts of ears. — The kernels should extend in regular order over the 
butt, leaving a depression when the shank is removed. 

7. Kernel uniformity. — The kernels from the various ears to be uniform in 
shape and size. 

8. Kernel shape. — Kernels should touch from crown to tip, but still be 
wedge shaped. The tip end should be well formed to insure a healthy germ. 

9. Color. — An ear with red cob and white kernel is not desirable. It is a 
"scrub" ear. 

10. Space between rows. — Should be sufficient for drying out of rows . 

11. Vitality. — Fully ripe, dry and of strong vitality. Grains of a pinkish 
hue and the germ white, being somewhat brittle. 

12. Space between kernels. — Shows that corn lacks nutritive value and 
has been improperly matured. 

13. Trueness to type. — Compares favorably with other ears of same variety. 

14. Proportion of shelled corn to ear. — Suppose there are 10 ears. Shell 
and weigh the corn taken from five ears. Divide the weight of the corn by the 
total weight of the ears to get the percent of corn. 

Below is given the length, circumference and percent of corn to the cob 
of three varieties of corn: 



10 

Circum- 

Lengtti. ference. Percent. 

Reid's Yellow Dent 10 to 11 7. to 7.75 88 

Riley's Favorite 9 to 10 6.75 to 7.5 90 

Champion White Pearl 8 to 10 6.75 to 1J^ 85 

PREPARATION OF SOIL. — The condition of the surface of the soil deter- 
mines to a large extent the amount of rainfall that will be absorbed. The con- 
dition of the subsoil is also a large factor in preparing the soil for planting and 
cultivation. In many clay subsoils a better crop can be raised if deeprooted 
plants, such as a-lfalfa ami clover, are planted. The roots of these plants make 
openings through which the water may penetrate the soil. Some subsoils, how- 
ever, are too porous and much vegetable matter must be turned under if the 
best crops are to be expected. Corn needs at least from five to six inches of 
ra'infall in order to produce a good crop, hence one of the main things in the 
preparation of the soil is to cultivate the land in such a manner that the rain- 
fall of the spring may be kept in the soil. If the soil is kept thoroughly pulver- 
ized it prevents the evaporation of much moisture. Alter the corn has come up 
it is often advisable to have the surface layer a^ mulch of at least an inch in 
thickness. If a rain makes a crust of this mulch it must in most soils be imme- 
diately broken or else evaporation begins again. 

An excess of water, however, often does as much injury to the growing 
corn as does the lack of it. If the soil is to rema-in in a good state of prepara- 
tion there must be sufficient drainage to allow the air to enter the soil. The 
three important foods *hat the corn plant needs are nitrogen, phosphorus and 
potash. They are absorbed by the tiny rootlets and then carried to the leaves, 
and by the a-ction of the chlorophyll and the sunlight these elements are 
changed into food materials, such as starch, sugar, fats and proteids. Much 
nitrogen can be stored up in the soil by the planting of clover or alfalfa, hence 
much attention should be given from year to year to the storage of plant food 
in the soil. If proper rotation does not occur the careful yearly preparation of 
the soil lacks the vital factor. It is said that when you sell ten dollars worth 
of corn you have tr^ken from the farm about four dollars worth of fertilizer. 

Bulletin No. 126, of the Agricultural Experiment Sta-tion of the University 
of Illinois says concerning the planting of corn: "On all ordinary corn belt 
land of the northern part of Illinois, plant corn hills not more tha-n thirty-six 
inches apart and plant at least three kernels per hill." Also, "In Central Illinois 
in the common brown silt loam prairie land, of a productive capacity greater 
fftan fifty bushels per acre, plant corn 39.6 inches between the hills and drop 
three kernels per hill.'' 

Usually the early planting of corn produces a larger yield than does the 
late planting. The depth of planting depends nearly entirely upon the quality 
and moisture of the soil. The lateness of the season, however, nearly always 
suggests shallow planting. 

CORN DAYS AND CORN CONTESTS.— Farmers' Institutes, private citi- 
inens and school officers are doing much to awaken an interest in the growing of 
more and better corn. Each school in the corn belt should set aside at least 
one day a year to be known as "Corn Day." Every farmer boy should enter 
'.he contest in his school district, township, county or congressional district for 
the better yield of corn. In Christian County, Illinois, the bankers, in 1913, 
offered |200 in prizes for the raising of better corn. There was a one-acre con- 
test and a ten-acre contest. The conditions were as follows: 

1. Age limit, 10 to 18 years. 

2. The name and type of seed corn must be recorded. 

3. An account of the time required for the various operations to be kept. 

4. Final measurement of the area and husking shall be under the super- 
vision of a committee. 

5. The corn must be gathered and weighed. Two 100 pound lots must be 
weighed from different parts of the area. Then the contestant must shell each 
(ot and weigh the shelled corn. The weights of the two lotg should be added 
and divided by two, in order to find the average percentage of shelled corn. 
The total weight of the corn should then be multiplied by the percent thus 
obtained, and the result divided by 56 to get the number of bushels. 



11 

Suppose that the two lots of shelled corn weigh 86 lbs. and 84 lbs. respect- 
ively, and the total weight of corn produced on the acre is 7,000 lbs., the pro- 
cess would be as follows: 

86 lbs. 
S4 lbs. 

170 divided by 2 = 85, the percent. 

7000 

.85 



35000 
56000 



5950.00 divided by 56 = 106 with a remainder of 14; hence the area cod- 
tadns 106 bu. 14 lbs. 

6. In estimating profits uniform prices will be used, for instance, $5 per 
acre for rent, 10 cents per hour for the work of each boy, .5 cents per hour for 
each horse, |2 for a two-horse load of stable manure, and market prices for 
commercial fertilizers. 

7. The contestant must show that he did all the work on the corn. 

8. In awarding prizes the following basis shall be used: 
Greatest yield per acre — 50 percent. 

Best showing of profit in investment — 30 percent. 
Best written history of crop — 20 percent. 

CORN BULLETINS. 

List of helpful pamphlets that may be obtained free: 

Directions for testing seed corn. Corn Improvement Committee, Board ol 
Trade, Chicago, Illinois. 

Distance between Hills of Corn.. Bulletin 126, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 

Shrinkage of Corn Bulletin 113, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 

Ear Rots of Corn Bulletin 133, Agri. College Urbana, 111 

Com Breeding Bulletin 128, Agri. College, Urba^na, 111 

Corn-field Ant Bulletin 131, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 

Physical Characters in Cornplant. Bulletin 132, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 

Fertilizers in the Corn-Belt Bulletin 165, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 

Germination of Seed Corn Bulletin 253, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C 

Production of Good Seed Corn. .Bulletin 229, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C, 

School Lesson on Corn Bulletin 409, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C. 

Corn Cultivation Bulletin 414, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C. 

Corn and Its Uses Extension Bulletin, Agri. College, Urbana, IlL 

Feeding Corn to Live Stock. .. .Bulletin 102, Agri. College, Urbana, 111. 

CORN GRADE RULES ESTABLISHED BY FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR 

ALL MARKETS. 

EiTective Everywhere July 1, 1914. 

NEW GRADES FOR COMMERCIAL CORN. 

Promulgated by the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Effective 
July 1. 1914. 

No. 1 CORN. — Shall be sweet, exclusive of heat damaged or mahogany ker- 
nels, and must not contain more than 
14 per cent moisture. 
2 per cent damaged corn. 

1 per cent foreign material. 

2 per cent cracked corn. 



12 

No. 2 CORN. — Shall be sweet exclusive of heat damaged or mahogany ker- 
nels and must not contain more than 
15.5 per cent moisture. 
4 per cent damaged corn. 

1 per cent foreign material. 

3 per cent cracked corn. 

No. 3 CORN. — Shall be sweet, exclusive of heat damaged or mahogany ker- 
nels and must not contain more than 
17.5 per cent moisture, 
6 per cent damaged corn. 

2 per cent foreign material. 

4 per cent cracked corn. 

No. 4 CORN. — Shall be sweet and must not contain more than 
19.5 per cent moisture. 
8 per cent damaged corn. 

2 per cent foreign material. 

4 per cent cracked com. 

% per cent heat damaged or mahogany kernels. 

No. 5 CORN. — Shall be sweet and must 'not contain more than 

21.5 per cent moisture. 

10 per cent damaged corn. 

3 per cent foreign material. 

5 per cent cracked corn. 

1 per cent heat da-maged or mahogany kernels. 

No. 6 CORN. — Must not contain more than 

23 per cent moisture. 

15 per cent damaged corn. 

5 per cent foreign material. 

3 per cent heat damaged or mahogany kernels. 

May be musty, sour, or include corn of inferior quality, such as immature 
aind badly blistered corn. 

SAMPLE CORN. — All corn that does not meet the requirements of either 
of the six numerical grades by reason of excessive moisture, damaged kernels, 
foreign matter, cracked corn, hot corn, heat damaged corn, fire burnt corn, in- 
fested with live weevil, or otherwise of distinctly low grade. 

WHITE CORN (All Grades).— Shall consist of not less thsm 98 per cent 
white corn. 

YELLOW CORN (All Grades).— Shall consist of not less than 95 per cent 
yellow corn. 

MIXED CORN (All Grades). — Shall consist of corn of various colors not 
coming within the limits for color prescribed for white or yellow corn. 

FOREIGN MATERIAL — Includes dirt, cob, other grains, finely broken corn, 
etc. 

CRACKED CORN. — Includes all coarsely broken pieces of kernels that will 
pass through a perforated sieve with round holes, one-fourth inch in diameter, 
except, that the material defined as finely broken com shall not be considered 
as cracked corn. 

FINE BROKEN CORN. — Includes all broken particles of corn that will pass 
through a perforated sieve with round holes, 9-64-inch in diameter. 

MOISTURE PERCENTAGES. — As provided in grade specifications shall 
conform to results obtained by the standard method and tester described in 
Circular No. 72, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

NOTE. — It is understood that the damaged corn; the foreign material, in- 
cluding pieces of cob, dirt, finely broken corn, other grains, etc., and the coarsely 
broken or cracked corn as provided for under the various grades shall be such 
as occur naturally in corn when handled under good conditions. 



13 

WHEAT. 

Wheat is the chief crop in the tempera^te zones. Wheat may be classified 
in many different ways, first there is tlie smooth and bearded, as well as the 
winter and the spring. 

Prom the fact that the wheat is such a common plant it has a number of 
enemies, chief among which are, the chinch bug, Hessian fly, the wheat midge, 
and the army worm. To combat the chinch bug and the Hessian fly, it is 
necessary to keep the fields a-nd fences free from trash and underbrush. 

Among the varieties in the middle west are, Turkey Red, Dawson's Golden 
Chaff, Indiana' Swamp, Fulcaster and Harvest King. The Turkey Red wheat is 
the more common in central and northern Illinois, while the Harvest King and 
Fulcaster are the more common varieties of the southern part of the State. 

THE CHINCH BUG. — If we are to combat successfully this little brown 
colored, full grown insect, (the young chinch bug is a bright red), it is necessary 
that we become more familiar with, where a^nd how he lives. The fore wings 
are white, each having a dark spot near the middle. 

Many insects have but one generation during the entire spring and summer, 
but this is not generally true in the case of the chinch bug as there are two 
generations in nearly all latitudes. When the freezes begin in the fall the 
adult bug leaves the fields where he has been staying and takes up his natural 
abode for the winter. In most instances these winter quarters are in neglected 
fence corners or along fences or division lines where the grass and weeds 
are often allowed to grow. Small brush hea-ps, tufts of grass along the ditches 
or scattered bunches of hay and straw are virtually "hot beds" where these 
pests are able to withstand the most rigorous winters. About the middle of 
April or the first of May these hardy insects come from their winter home and 
begin to lay the eggs in such fields as the wheat, the clover a^nd timothy. The 
eggs are laid on the lower parts of the plants. 

The product of these eggs do their greatest injury to the whea-t and oats. 
Formerly the depredations of the chinch bug seemed to be confined to the wheat 
and corn crops but now he invades other fields and often does as much injury 
to ao oats crop as he does to his choice articles of diet. The chinch bug 
moults four times and in the stage just preceding the one when they acquire 
the fully developed wings, they shed their complete covering. Quite often it is 
taken for granted that these outgrown shells are dead bugs. After leaving the 
wheatfield, for instance, the bugs travel principally by foot into nearby corn- 
fields. It is while the bug is in this stage of development that it does its 
greatest damage, however if no check is placed on him now it means a greater 
number for the propagation of the second generation about midsummer. This 
new generation does much damage to the corn during the latter part of July 
and through August. They travel principally by wing during these months. 

It may be safely figured that an extermina-tion of a thousand adults in 
early spring would be about the same as the destruction of one hundred fifty 
thousand of the first generation that come forth about sixty days later, or to 
carry the computation to the second generation of midsummer would mean 
that an army of 22,-500,000,000 would have to be destroyed to equal the one 
thousand adults that have lived through the winter. 

Many practical lines of attack on the extermination of this destructive 
insect ha^ve been effectively made but in many instances the attention has been 
given to the destruction of the pests after they have started on their depredations 
rather than of attempting to prevent their propagation. If the weeds in fence 
corners, weed ways, bunch heaps, piles of leaves and other similar places 
were destroyed in early spring by burning there would be a visible decrease in 
the number of the pests just as there is an absence of mosquitoes in a well 
drained tract of land. Of course, much better results could be attained if in- 
fested communities would have "clean up" day at about the same time in the 
spring. 

Too often the destruction of these natural breeding places does not occur 
until after the bugs have flown to the places where they deposit the eggs. 
Another factor that enters largely into the lessening of the number of the 
winter adults is the Bob White. If for no other reason than this the quail family 
should not be molested at any time during the year. During the late fall also 



14 

the quail eats many of these brown bugs. The assumption can be made at this 
time that if neighborhoods and groups of neighborhoods would give the proper 
attention to the destroying of the breeding grounds that the first and second 
generations could be reduced to a minimum. 

When an a-rmy of undeveloped bugs start, for example, from a wheat field 
to a cornfield something definite must be done at once. A line of crude oil 
may be placed around an infested field, thus stopping their forward movement. 
Holes two or three feet deep at certain intervals may be dug just within the 
oil line. Nearly invariably the bugs fall into these traps and are unable to 
crawl out. During an extremely dry season a dust furrow may be made around 
a cornfield. A log, wheel or other cylindrical object may be used to keep the 
depth of the furrow regular. By this method the drag must be kept continually 
going as this keeps the dust Tn a proper condition for stopping the progress 
of the bugs and at the same time kills the bugs that continually fall into the 
furrow. 

After the bugs have attacked the first rows of corn they will be reduced 
maiterially, possibly 80 per cent, by applying a spray of kerosene emulsion or one 
of water, tobacco and soap. The cost of either spray is a small item when a 
comparison is made with the good that is done. The cost should not exceed 
two dollars per acre. 



15 



LEGUMES. 



Among the plants that are known as legumes may be mentioned alfalfa 
red clover, white clover, sweet clover, alsike, cowpeas, soybeans and vetch 
m all the species the leaves are arranged ai'^und the stem in a regular order 
There is also a great similarity in the roots, there being a main root rom 
which many smaller roots branch. In nearly all soils the roots hive smaH 
umps or nodules on them. These nodules are produced by bacteria that Tive 

Ine ifto'he^'f,^ T *^ '""^^ °' ^""^'"-^ *^^ nitrogen fromlheS and idd- 
ing It to the soil. As nitrogen is one of the food elements of nearly all plant- 
it IS necessary that to get the best crops some species of legumes must be used 
,. ,. ^^^ CLOVER.—Probably the most important legume is red clover but al- 

fa'' sL?v oT e'd'fS"^ "•' 'I'r' 'f T""^ ^^^*^""^- ^^^ «*■ the Principi' fac ors 
ma studj of red clover is the selection of the seed. Much clover offered for 
sale contains many weed seeds, as dodder, buck horn and trefoil 

land'^hafisTht^'^/cloTeT ''"^^'^ *' ^'' ^^^^"^ '^"^ ^^ "^^'^ ^'^^'^"^ '^ -^^ 

Jt is"^' mL^h'h^aa?p7aS'iran^Z^rcTov^ '''' ^^^^"^'^^ ^'^^ ^^--- 

COW PEAS.— The cow pea is a plant that grows in rather a bushy form 

It js used m many sections as a substitute for oats, hay. or other farm^a-Sl 

SOYBEANS.— The soybean often grows to a height of three feet havine a 
hundred or more pods. The leaves of the soybean are the parts that arJufed 

ni[rSto?he%^oiT^ '^^ "" ''^'^' '' '''''^' ^" unsuall^ largf aL'n?itrof 

thatT^S^^-^^^SKyXlJ^ J^e^a^t" ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ 
ALFALFA.— The growing of alfalfa, the typical forage plant has begun tn. 

?n iv tiw fh"'^v,''°H ^',"^^"^ '''■'''''"' °f "^^^«i«- Q^ite often failure L success 
iflJlT/^'^ ^/"^^ ^^^""^ '^ "°t ^^ ™"ch the fault of the plant as it is to lack 
of knowledge of how the plant grows and the treatment it needs t can be 
grown on practically any soil except a wet a<^id soil. The bacteria foundTthP 
nodules on the alfalfa roots cannot live in an acid soil Lime nmst be u^d^^ 
neutralize the acidity of such a soil before the attempt Is made to plant the 
alfalfa. In conjunction with the use of limestone there must be the innr^i^LS^ 
ot the seed bed Much care must be taken in the prepSa on of the seed beS 
of tht ZZff d^f ^^.'^f ,a» ^eeds and grasses. Just preceding the sowing 

Sler the Plot SolhaT tV'h'^''"'^ "" ^''"''^ ^^^*^ ^'^^"'^ ^^ ««^«ered ev^n^y 

AffI- tb\ H^l H I ^^^ bacteria may be scattered in all parts of the field 

the dirt has been sown the field should be disked or harrowed ^ht 

tTtrs^n'^Iftn'alfl^fT^eld '"''T '^'^TJ^^ surfaceld'notb^rg'expJs" d 
frorn thi^ L^ an alfalfa field is not near, the inoculated dirt may be obtained 
from the bed of the common sweet clover that grows along the public road? 

of gfoS "TherP ^.^i^ "r^"^"*'^' ^^T ^^7''^'' P""'^^^ «f alfalfa seed for a.n acre 

Alfalfa Growing in Illinois. It is a valuable book of 116 pagls. ^ 

FORAGE CROPS 

Sard kSss and 1-ed ton Th^^..'^ 'T"'"" ^'^"^"^^ ^^^ ^'"^ S^a««- timothy 



16 



WEEDS. 



The main object in a study of tlie weed is to get the notion that the eradi- 
cation of the plant depends upon the lessening of the production of the seed. 
An interest may be awakened in the subject of weeds if a- collection of the 
seeds is made so that the student may know the plant as well as the seed. 

Some weeds may be reduced in numbers by merely cutting the plant be- 
fore the seeds ripen. In other instances the plant must be "dug up by the 
roots" so to speak, otherwise the mere cutting of the stalk does but little 
good ' Salt or acids may be placed upon the root stalks of many plants, thus 
destroying them. With but very few exceptions deep plowing destroys the 
worst of weeds. The keeping of the fence corners, fields, and byways tree 
from weeds means a lesser number in the grain fields, hence a larger crop 
(Farmers often raise larger crops on account of the work placed upon the soil 
in the attempt to exterminate the weed.) , , . .. ,v. 

Many weeds are used as medicine. Sometimes it is the leaf, sometimes the 
root sometimes the seed, and sometimes the stalk. Among the common medi- 
cine' weeds are dandelion, burdock, yellow dock, quick grass, muUem, tansy, 
catnip, and jimson weed. 

SEED TESTING. 

In the planting of clover, alfalfa, oats, blue grass and timothy it is of much 
economical importance that the individual distinguish the grade of seed by the 
physical examination. This can be done by examining the seed under a hand 
glass Quite frequently old seed is mixed with the new seed or the weed seed 
is not separated from the good grass seed. By experimenting with a number 
of samples it may be easily discovered the proportion of dirt, shriveled clover 
seed plump clover seed and weed ^eeds in a sack of clover seed. Place 
small quantities of the seed upon a clean white paper and make the inspection 
with the small miscroscope, separating the various adulterants into groups 
Among the seeds often found in red clover are buckhorn, dodder, trefoil and 
wild carrot. 



SOIL. 

ORIGIN. — boil is the thin covering of the earth which can be tilled and 
in which plants grow. It is composed of fine pa-rticles of rock and decayed 
plants. 

At first the earth's surface was solid rock. Through centuries of time the 
great forces of nature have been crumbling this rock. The natural forces, or 
agents, as they are usually called, which break up the rocky materia-l, are 
given below: 

1. GLACIERS. — A glacier is a great mass of snow and ice moving slowly 
over the surface of the earth. It wears away hills and mountains, fills val- 
leys, and grinds the rock beneath it into fine particles. A great many years 
ago a large portion of North America was covered by a glacier which gradually 
moved southward producing in its course the fine soil characteristic of this 
region. Large parts of Northern and Central Illinois were covered by this 
glacier, traces of which may yet be seen in the sand banks or gra-vel banks 
left by its melting. 

2. WATER. — Running water has been an important agent of soil forma- 
tion. Just as our brooks and rivers now carry muddy soil towards their 
mouths so they carried many years ago, ground rock, which had been worn 
from the bed rock by the action of water, or large pieces of rock which 
were thrown together or against the banks of the stream until they were ground 
finer. Solid rock is often broken into pieces by the freezing of the water 
which has found its way into cracks. 

3. Air. — The o>a>'gen and carbonic aci<l in the air unite with certain sub- 
stances in the rock causing a kind of rock-decay Avhich results in the crumbling 
of the rock. This action of the air is called oxidation. A familiar illustra- 
tion of this action of air, is the rust on a knife blade or the stove pipe. 

4. HEAT AND COLD. — The heat of the sun causes rock to expand. Rock 
is a mineral made up of a number of different substances. These substances 
do not expand the same amount and in the same directions. When the rock 
begins to cool the substances do not cool equally. This unequa^l expansion 
and contraction cause the rock to break into fragtnents. 

5. PLANTS. — The roots of plants often gi-ow into the crevices of rocks 
causing them to be broken apart. An acid is formed by the decay of plants 
and roots which has a tendency to dissolve the rock which it touches. 

The decay of pla-nts has helped very greatly in the formation of soil. In 
fact some soils have been formed almost entirely by decayed vegetation, which 
is called humus. Leaf mold which is found under the carpet of dead leaves is a 
good example of humus. . . . 

6. ANIMALS. — Animals have played an important part in the forma'tion of 
soil. Burrowing animals, as the gopher, mole, prairie dog, ground squirrel, 
earthworm and insects, aid in preparing the soil for plant growth by bringing 
the deeper soil to the surface and keeping it open and porous to a-id in the 
free movement of air and wititer. 

Thus we see how the great natural forces enter into the making of the 
soil in which our plant life grows. 

KINDS OF SOILS. 

Soils are named according to the proportion of rock particles of certain 
size they contain, or according to the amount of vegetable matter they con- 
tain. They are usually divided into three classes — sandy, clay and peat. There 
are many intermediate types of soil between these classes depending on 
the amount of the different ingredients each contains. These soils are called 
loams. 

A sandy soil is one composed largely of sand. It is very loose and allows 
air and water to pass readily through it. This type of soil is easy to work, but 
not rich in plant food. It is, however, adapted to the growth of ea^rly vegetables 
and sweet potatoes. 

The ictermediate types of sandy soils are sandy loams, light loams and 



18 

medium sandy loams. Of these the medium sandy loams are best adapted 
to the regular farm crops. 

A clay soil is composed of very fine particles. It is hard to work and. 
when wet is plastic and sticky. Since clay particles have a tendency to cling 
together and do not crumble on drying, this soil is used in making tile, brick 
and pottery. 

Water does not evaporate from clay soil nor circulate through it very 
readily. 

Clay alone makes a very poor farm soil, but soil composed of as much as 
40% or 50% of clay may be well adapted to the growing of regular farm crops. 

The clay loams are generally known as medium clay loams and heavy 
clay loams. 

Peat is composed largely of vegetable matter that has partially decayed 
under water. Usually it does not contain more than 25% of rock particles. 
It is found in bogs, swamps and other wet places. Many of these bogs are found 
in Northern United States and Canada. When peat has become more thoroughly 
decomposed it is called muck. 

These soils are excellent for growing celery, onions, cauliflower and cab- 
bage, when they are well drained and supplied plentifully with lime. 

In addition to the soils named here are several kinds of gravelly soils 
known as gravelly sandy soils, gravelly clay soils- and gravelly loamy soils, de- 
pendent upon the amount of stone and other soil ingredients. In gravelly 
soils the stone particles vary in diameter from %-in. to 2 inches. 

Stony soils are those that contain many large stones. 

Both gravelly and stony soils are more ada-pted to orchards and general 
farming than to vegetable growing. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES.— Ask the pupils to collect and bring to school as 
many different kinds of soils as they can find in the neighborhood. 

These specimens should be classified, put in bottles and marked to show 
the kind of soil and the place where each was found. Weigh each sample. 
After a few weeks weigh again and explain the change. 

From your knowledge of soils determine which are most common in your 
neighborhood. 

Which soils are best adapted for crop growing? Why? 

Put samples of soils in dishes or glass tumblers that are almost full of 
water. Stir each sample thoroughly and note which settles first. Let them 
stand for a time and notice the condition of the water in each. Stir again, 
and after the soil has settled pour off all the water leaving the settlings 
in the bottom of the glass. Notice the amount of sand in each. 

The following table has been adapted from "Soil Fertility and Permanent 
Agriculture," by Hopkins. 

Peat With 25 to 75 per cent of organic matter. 

Peaty Loam Ten to 25 per cent organic matter with loam. 

Muck Ten to 25 per cent organic matter with clay. 

Clay Plastic clay predominating. 

Clay Loam Much clay with loam. 

Silt Loam Much silt with loam. 

Loam Sand, silt, clay and organic matter, with neither markedly 

predomina-ting. 

Sandy Loam Much sand with loam. 

Sand Sand without much silt or clay. 

Gravelly Loam Gravel with loam. 

Gravel Gravel without much silt or clay. 

Stony Loam Stones with loam. 

Rock Out-Crop Disintegrating rock. 

Write to the Agricultural Experiment Station at the University of Illi- 
nois, Urbana, for Bulletin No. 123, Fertility in Illinois Soils. This bulletin 
will i)e found very helpful in classifying the kinds of soil in Illinois. 



19 

WATER IN SOIL. 

Since water in the soil is necessa-ry for plant growth, fertile soils must 
be liberally supplied with it. All the water in the soil comes from rain. 
Much of the rainfall runs into streams before it can be absorbed, and is car- 
ried away. The rest of it soaks into the soil and becomes available for 
plant-food. 

FORMS OF WATER IN SOIL.— Water in the soil may be classed as free 
water, capillary water and hygroscopic, or fine film water. 

FREE WATER is that which percolates downward through the soil under 
the influence of gravity until it reaches and maintains a given level. It is called 
also hygrostatic water and ground water. It is this water which supplies 
wells and springs. 

CAPILLARY WATER is that which is held in the capillary spaces or pores 
of the soil. It soaks through the soil in any direction much like oil passes 
through a wick. In soils which have small spaces, as clay, the water doe not 
pass through readily, but it passes very quickly through loose, coarse-grained 
soil, as sand. 

Capillary water is called a-lso coarse film or simply film water, because 
it clings to fhe soil particles in little films. It is this water which is used 
by plants. As the capillary moisture is used by the plants it is supplied from 

^ViO frCifi Wri^f f^V 

HYGROSCOPIC, or FINE FILM MOISTURE is that which is held on the 
soil particles in the form of a fine film. It does not move like the other forms 
of moisture, and can be removed only by heating the soil to the boiling temp- 
erature. Fine film moisture does not aid plant growth, but helps to keep the 
plant alive in times of great drought. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES.— Fill three or four lamp chimneys with as 
many kinds of soil. Tie a piece of cloth over the bottom of each and place 
this end in a shallow pan of water. Notice the rapidity with which the water 
rises in the different soils. Take the pan of water away and study the effects 
of evaporation. 

MOVEMENT OF WATER.— Water moves in the soil as a result of two 
forces, capillary attraction and gravity. The free vv-ater moves downward 
under the influence of gravity. The capillary water can move in any direction 
on account of the close contact of the particles. This movement is always 
towards a dry portion of the soil. As fast as the roots of the plants take up 
soil moisture, there is a movement of the water towards the roots by ca- 
pillary attraction. Some of this water rises to the surface and is lost to the 
soil by evaporation. 

METHODS OP RETAINING MOISTURE.— In a dry time especially it be- 
comes necessary to stop this movement of water that results in evapora- 
tion. This may be done by covering the ground with any loose mulch, like 
hay or straw, which will keep away wind and warmth and act as a' trap to hold 
the moisture which rises to the top. 

Capillary water does not rise rapidly through dry soil, therefore one of 
the best means of preventing evaporation is to form a dry dust mulch on 
the surface. This is done by careful cultivation. Cultivators with many small 
shovels, fine-toothed harrows and weeders are generally used to form the dust 
mulch. Some farmers get good results by dragging a' planter wheel over the 
ground. 

In addition to forming the dust mulch, cultivation tends to break the 
capillary connection between the spaces or pores of the soil, thereby checking 
the upward movement of the water, and leaving the soil loose so that it will 
readily absorb the next rain. 

DRAINAGE. — All farm la-nds that do not drain themselves naturally should 
be artificially drained. 

The benefits of drainage are many. Among the most important are the 
following: 

1. It removes the surplus water and allows air to enter the spaces be- 
tween the soil particles. The roots of plants will not go down any farther 
than the air reaches. 

2. Much water causes the soil to be cold. By removing the surplus water 



20 

the temperature of the soil is increased, making it better for the growth of 
plant life. 

3. It prevents surface-washing whereby much of the plant food is carried 
away with the soil. 

4. It promotes the growth of bacteria which change the unavailable 
elements into the form most useful to plants. 

5. By removing the excess of water the roots of plants go deeper into the 
ground thus giving them a larger a^mount of moist soil from which to draw 
the films of water. 

6. Land, rich in plant food, that has been too wet to cultivate, has been 
reclaimed by proper drainage, and converted into valuable farming la-nd. 

AIR IN SOIL. — There can be no plant growth unless there is air in the 
soil. The roots of plants require air as much as the stems and leaves. If 
the free water in the soil comes up nearly to the surfa-ce, the supply of air 
is shut off and plant life ceases to exist. 

Air is also necessary in the formation of humus. Vegetation will not 
decay unless air is present in the soil. 

The soil-bacteria, which convert plant-food into a form which makes it 
available for use by plants cannot exist without air. 

Since air is so necessary to plant growth farmers should take good care 
to see that the free water is removed from their farms by proper drainage. 

SOIL FERTILITY. — An element is a substance that cannot be divided into 
two or more substances; e. g., carbon, iron. 

A compound is a substance which consists of two or more elements and 
which possesses some properties or characteristics not possessed by either 
element alone: e. g., carbon and oxygen form carbon dioxide (CO-'). 

About eighty elements exist in nature. In this book we are concerned 
with only the ten elements which are absolutely required for plant growth; 
viz., carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), magnesium (Mg), ca-lcium (Ca), 
iron (Fe), sulphur (S), potassium (K), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). 

Of these elements the first three, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen which con- 
stitute 95% of our common crops, come from air and water. The next four 
elements occur naturally in such large amounts that the soil is never deficient 
in them. This leaves only three, nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, with 
which the farmer is mostly concerned. 

Nitrogen is cont&ined in the air in large amounts and it may be maintained 
in the soil by the growth of leguminous plants, such as beans, peas, clover, 
and alfalfa, w^hich have the power to utilize the free nitrogen of the air. 
The application of barnyard manure is one of the best ways to keep up the 
supply of nitrogen. 

Phosphorus is contained in combination with lime a^nd other materials. 
These combinations are called phosphates. 

Ground bone and phosphate rock may be applied to land that is deficient 
in phosphorus. 

Fertile land is that which contains all the essential elements of plant 
growth in sufficient quantities to produce good crops. Land which has been 
farmed for years without any attempt being made to restore the elements 
which have been used by the growing crops finally fails to produce profitably, 
and becomes what we know as "worn-out" land. Attention must then be 
given to the restoration of the deficient elements by careful cultivation, the 
rotation of crops, the application of barnyard manure and commercial fertil- 
izers, and proper drainage. 

The farmer who sells all his produce each year and returns nothing to 
the soil makes a^ great mistake. A better plan is to feed the produce to live- 
stock and utilize the manure, both liquid and solid, the straw, the roots, stubble 
and vines for the improvement of the soil. 

LIMING OF SOILS. — Soils that are sour, or acid, will not produce good 
crops. To determine whether land is sour or not, take a few ounces of soil 
to the depth of six or seven inches and mold into a ball. Break this ball into 
two parts and place a piece of blue litmus paper between the parts, pressing 
them firmly together. If the paper turns pink the soil is a-cid. 

Note. — Blue litmus pa})er may be obtained at any drug store. 



21 

To determine whether soil has lime or not, make a ball of moist eartX 
depress one side and pour a little muriatic acid into the depression If lime 
exists in sufficient quantities little bubbles will appear when the acid touches 
the soil. 

The beet test is another good way to determine whether soil is in need 
of lime. All kinds of beets require lime in the soil. A piece of land suffr 
ciently large for the experiment should be laid off in the field A piece conr 
taming about 3.600 sq. ft. should be selected. After this ground has been plowed 
deeply and rolled, a complete fertilizer, barnyard manure, preferably should 
be applied at the rate of about 500 pounds per acre. This plat should be 
divided into three equal pieces. On the first apply about 100 pounds of lime^, 
on the second use about 50 pounds and on the third do not apply any. Then a 
sufficient quantity of beet seed should be sowed. A comparison of the yieldg 
from the three plats will determine whether or not lime is needed. 

To correct the acidity of soil lime should be used. It is the most effective 
agent known for this purpose. The most common form of lime used for agri- 
cultural purposes is quicklime (CaO, calcium oxide). It is that part left when 
limestone rock is burned. Limestone rock, finely ground, is often applied to 
the soil by a lime-spreader, a manure-spreader, or by shovels from wagons Tb- 
last method of distribution is not desirable on account of the caustic nature 
of lime. 

The best time to apply lime is in the fall because it will have more time 
to work down into the soil than if a^pplied in the spring. 

The amount of lime to use varies with the kind of soil, the kind of crop* 
to be grown, and the form of lime applied. 

C. G. Hopkins, Professor of Agronomy in the University of Illinois ree- 
ommenffs the application of two tons per acre of ground limestone rock' with 
repeated applications in later years. 

It is possible to have too much lime in soil, in which event it becomes 
harmful. It helps to make the plant food in the soil available, and in large quafr 
titles it may cause these foods to be liberated faster than they can be usei 
by the glowing plants, thus causing waste. Too much lime may also rause 
the vegetable matter in the soil to decay too fast. 

FREE BULLETINS FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 

No. 44. Commercial Fertilizers. 

No. 77. The Liming of Soils. '"' 

No. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. 

No. 192. Barnyard Manure. 

No. 237. Lime and Clover. ' ■ 

No. 245. Renovating Worn-out Soils. 

No. 306. Some Soil Problems for Practical Farmers. 



22 

CATTLE. 

BREEDS. — All farm animals were formerly called cattle; the term now 
applies only to neat cattle. Our improved breeds are probably descended 
from the wild cattle which existed in the ancient forests of Europe. 

A breed is a subdivision of a family in the animal kingdom which has 
been subjected to and reproduced under the same conditions until it has 
acquired a distinctive character common to all the members. 

Cattle have two important uses; namely, the production of milk and the 
production of beef. In addition to these main uses and the hides are used 
for making leather, the bones for buttons, fertilizers, etc., the hair for plaster, 
and the hoofs and horns for glue. According to their main uses cattle are 
divided into BEEF BREEDS, or types, and DAIRY BREEDS, or types. 

CHARACTERISTICS. — There is a marked difference in general between 
the dairy cow and the beef type. In the dairy cow the hindquarters are largely 
developed, the shoulders are usually low and scantily covered with flesh and 
the neck is long and thin. This gives a decided wedge shaped appearance 
which is regarded as typical of cows of dairy excellence and which is made 
more noticeable by a large udder that extends well forward and backwards. 

In the beef type the outline of the body is square, the back is straight, 
the stomach line is parallel to the back line and the whole body is well fleshed, 
the neck is full and short and the udder small. 

The dairy cow does not produce good meat as a rule on account of the 
thinness of flesh and the beef cow is not a good "milker" because her food 
goes to fa't rather then to milk. 

EXAMPLES— BEEF BREEDS. 

The leading beef breeds are as follows: 

1. Shorthorn, or Durham, an English breed. 

2. Aberdeen-Angus, from Scotland. 

3. Hereford, from England. 

4. Galloways, from Scotland. 
.5. Sussex, an Engli-sh breed. 

■S. Polled Durham. 

DAIRY BREEDS. 

The principal dairy breeds are as follows: 

1. Holstein, or Holstein-Friesian, from Holland and Denmark. 

2. Guernseys, from the Island of Guernsey. 

3. Jerseys, from the Island of Jersey. 

4. Ayrshires, from Ayrshire, Scotland. 
.5. Brown-Swiss, from Switzerland. 

6. Dutch Belted. 

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. 

1. Devon. 

2. Red Polled. 

HISTORY OF DAIRY BREEDS. 

JERSEYS. — The Island of Jersey lies in the English Channel about thir- 
teen miles from the coast of France. Although it is only eleven miles miles 
long and six miles wide it is the home of one of the most important and widely 
distributed breeds of dairy cattle. Jersey cattle have been purely bred on 
tha-t island for a longer period than any other breed of English origin. This 
is largely due to the fact that there is a rigidly enforced law prohibiting 
under heavy penalties the landing of any outside cattle upon the shores 
of the island. 

Owing to the small farms and the high yearly rental of lands there are no 
extensive pastures in Jersey and cattle are not permitted to roam at large. 
They are tethered and are led, instead of being driven, from place to place, 
usually by women. Grass, hay and roots, chiefly parsnips, constitutes the 



bulk of their feed, very little grain being used. These conditions have de- 
veloped a race of healthy, vigorous, delicate and gentle cattle. 

Active importations of Jersey cattle to the United States began about 
the year 1850. Nearly all of the 2,000 animals or moie which the little 
island exported yearly came to this couniry. They have proved themselves 
so well adapted to a wide range of climate and have increased so rapidly 
m America that they are now more numerous than any other breed 

The Jerseys are smaller thac any of the other dairy breeds in this 
country and are of a squirrel gray or fawn color. White markings fre- 
quently appear, and the nose is usually black or dark-colored The milk is 
rich in fat and the cows are famous for the large quantities of butter they 
produce. Normal Jersey milk contains about b'A of butter fat, and in some 
cases rising as high as !'/,_. 

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS.— The Holstein-Friesian cattle are larger than 
tlie Jerseys and have strong color markings of black and white. These mark- 
ings are very irregular and are never mixed, the lines of distinction being 
sharply drawn. The black predominates in most cases. The name of this 
breed is derived from the names of Holland and Friesland, where they origi- 
nated. They are the heaviest milk producers of all the cattle often giving 
an average above their own live weight in milk monthly for ten or twelve 
consecutive months. The Holsteins are the favorites for dairymen doing a 
milk supply business. The milk is of fair quality but not rich in fat and is 
often found below the standard fixed by sta-te and municipal laws. 

GUERNSEYS.— Guernsey cattle are natives of another island in the Eng- 
lish Channel. They are a size larger than Jerseys, stronger-boned and coarser 
in appearance. They are light in color, yellow and orange predominating 
with some white. The muzzles are buff or flesh-colored, seldom black A 
generous secretion of yellow coloring matter is seen in the skin, especially 
where the hair is white, in the ears, around the eyes and about the udder 
This causes the cream and butter to be highly colored. 

The Guernseys produce large quantities of milk which is uncommonly 
rich in butter fat and natural color. The popularity of this breed is rapidly 
increasing in this country. 

AYRSHIRES.— The Ayrshire Cattle are natives of Ayjshire in the south- 
west part of Scotland. They are of medium size among dairy cattle, being 
smaller than the Holsteins and larger than the Jerseys. The prevailing color 
is red, white, and brown. These cattle are very easily kept, giving a large 
yield of milk without extravagance of food. The empty udder is quite small 
and occupies but little space. It is calculated to deceive the unskilled observer 
as to its capacity. When the milk glands are at work, the wrinkles smooth 
out, the folds expand and the filled Ayrshire udder is regarded as a model 
in shape for all dairy breeds. 

The milk of this breed is somewhat above the average in richness. The 
fat globules are small and cream rises very slowly. 

The Ayrshire is not recommended as a good butter cow, but the milk is 
suited for city supply, being above the legal standard and capable of long 
journeys without injury. 

BEEF BREEDS. 

SHORTHORNS.— Outside of tradition little is known of the Shorthorns 
down to the beginning of the 18th century. They are said to be descended 
from the old Northeast of England breed. An eminent authority says that 
the breed was probably originally formed by crossing the ab-original British 
cows with large-frame sires imported from the Continent. 

Much attention was given in America to the improvement of cattle about 
the close of the Revolutionary War. Virginia, Kentucky, New York and 
Massachusetts led in importations of Shorthorns, which were popularly known 
as the "milk breed." 

Up to 1835 this breed did not do well east of the Alleghanies, although 
they flourished greatly in Kentucky and neighboring states. 



24 

There was remarkable activity in the development of American Short- 
horns in the next twenty years, then came a rest of fifteen years followed 
by another Shorthorn "boom." At this time English breeders admitted that 
there were better "Shorthorns" in America than could be found in England 
and sent their agents over to buy some of them at any cost. In 1873 at a 
great sale held in New York one cow sold for $40,600, another for $35,000; 
eight others averaged $14,000 and six were sold at $24,000 apiece. 

The Shorthorns are a beef breed and in their general type most of the 
families of the breed conform closely to the beef type. However, Thomas 
Bates, an eminent breeder, succeeded in developing milking capacity to such 
an extent that the Bates family of Shorthorns are classed as general purpose 
animals. 

The prevailing colors of this breed are red and white with various blend- 
ings of these two; the head is short and broad; the horns short and blunt, 
usually with a downward curve, and the ears thin and creamy yellow inside. 
The Shorthorns are said to be the largest among the pure breeds of cattle. 

ABERDEEN ANGUS. — The Aberdeen Angus Cattle originated in the county 
of Aberdeen and the district of Angus, in Scotland. They are somewhat 
smaller than the shorthorns and are black in color with short legs and plump 
bodies. 

They fatten easily, producing the best quality of beef and bringing the 
highest prices on the market. 

Their naturally hornless character has gained for them the local name »f 
Polled Angus. 

HEREF0RD3. — The Hereford Cattle are red with white faces and some 
white n^arkings on the back, underline and feet. They were introduced into 
this country in 1817 by Henry Clay. This breed originated in Herefordshire, 
England. 

GALLO\YAYS. — Galloway Cattle originated in Southwestern Scotland, and, 
like the Aberdeen Angus, they are black and hornless and have short legs. 
However, they are unlike the Angus cattle in that they have a curly or 
shaggy coat while the former are sleek. As producers of good beef they rank 
next to the Aberdeen Angus Cattle, and command the next highest prices to 
them in the markets. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Make an estimate of the number in your district. 

2. Get reports on the number of cows kept in each family, and the pur- 
poses for which they are kept. 

3. Cut from the farm journals pictures of the different breeds of beef 
and dairy cows. Paste these pictures in a book or tablet label them carefully, 
and write a brief description of each. This will make a very interesting and 
valuable book. 

4. Visit a stock-farm if possible and have the ow^ner describe the points 
•f a good cow. 

5. Name the different breeds of cattle in your locality. 

DAIRY INDUSTRY. 

FEEDING FOR MILK. — We feed live stock to promote growth, to repair 
the waste of the body, to furnish heat and energy and to make special products 
such as, eggs, milk, etc. Scientific feeding consists in supplying food in the 
right proportions to meet the various requirements, of the animal without 
•waste. In order to work out the principles of feeding it is necessary to know 
the composition of feeding stitffs and the requirements of animals when per- 
forming different functions. In feeding dairy cattle two things must be taken 
into consideration; first, the cost, and second, the special adaptations of the 
different feeding materials for milk and butter production. 

Anim.al feeds are divided into the following classes: (1) Protein, (2) 



carbohydrates, (3) fats, (4) mineral salts. These different classes are neces- 
sary to meet the demands of similar substances found in the animal body. 

PROTEIN in the name of a group of materials containing nitrogen. The 
white of an egg (albumen) is the best example of protein. The gluten of 
wheat and the casein of cheese are other familiar examples of protein All 
field grains, hay, clover, beans and peas contain protein in abundance. Since 
this class of feeds goes to form the flesh, blood, skin, hair, the casein and albu- 
men of milk, etc., it is necessary for an animal to be provided with a certain 
amount of it in order to grow and fulfill the purposes of its existence. 

Foods that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in combination are called 
carbohydrates. They consist of starch, sugar, gums, and plant fiber. Coarse 
fodders such as hay and straw, contain a large proportion of fiber, while most 
grains are rich in starch and sugar. 

FATS include butter, lard, oils, fat meats, wax and the green coloring 
matter of plants. Cotton-seed meal, linseed meal and nuts contain a large 
quantity of fat. 

MINERAL MATTER or ash, is what is left when the combustible part of 
a feeding stuff is burned. It consists chiefly of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, 
iron, etc., and is found in suflicient quantities in ordinary fodders. Alfalfa is 
very rich in mineral matter. 

A BALANCED RATION. 

A balanced ration is one that contains the proper amount of protein and 
carbohydrates to secure the desired animal product. 

It has been found that the proper ration for a dairy cow should contain 
about six times as much carbohdrates as protein. This proportion of protein 
to carbohydrates is expressed as a ratio, as 1 to 6 or 1 : 6, and is called the 
"nutritive ratio.'' 

Therefore, if it is desired to find the nutritive ratio of any ration divide 
the amount of protein it contains by the amount of carbohydrates. 

FEEDING STANDARDS.— A statement of the amounts of the different 
nutrients required by animals as indicated by the results of experiments 
and observation is called a feeding standard. 

These standards cannot be made to apply to all conditions, but only to 
fverage conditions. They are not infallible guides to be followed without re- 
gard to conditions. For them to be of any value they must be applied with 
good judgment and intelligent observation. 

The standa-rd per day for a cow of 1,000 pound weight and giving 16 1^ 
pounds (about eight quarts) of milk per day, calls for twenty-seven pounds 
dry matter. At least fourteen pounds of this should be digestible, two to two 
and one-half pounds should be digestible protein and eleven and one-half to 
iwelve pounds carbohydrates. 

RATIONS FOR A DAIRY COW. 
' The following rations have been carefully worked out by practical feeders 
and are considered proper for dairy cows: 

Ration No. 1. Piotein. 

10 pounds clover hay 0.74 lbs. 

10 pounds corn fodder 23 lbs. 

3 pounds corn meal 19 lbs. 

3 pounds wheat bran 36 lbs. 

2 pounds Buffalo gluten meal 43 lbs. 

Total 1.95 lbs. 

Ration No. 2. Protein. 

Cowpea hay, 15 pounds 1.62 lbs. 

Corn stover, 10 pounds 17 lbs. 

Com ensilage, 30 pounds 27 lbs. 

Cotton seed meal, 2 pounds 74 lbs. 

Total 2.80 lbs. 



Carbohy 


drates. 


(fat X 


21/4) 


4 


215 


lbs. 


3 


487 


lbs. 


2 


185 


lbs. 


1 


41 


lbs. 


1 


37 


lbs. 


12 


667 


lbs. 


Carbohy 


drates. 


6 


15 


lbs. 


3 


391 


lbs. 


4 


862 


lbs. 




87 


lbs. 


15 


273 


lbs. 



26 

The last table gives an excellent ration for the feeder who has a silo. 

With the aid of the feeding standard and tables showing the amount of 
dry matter and digestible food ingredients in feeding stuffs, rations for 
different purposes may be calculated with considerable accuracy. This work 
will prove both interesting and profitable. It should be borne in mind that 
such calculations are not mathematically accurate, nor the reeding standards 
exact. The most that can be done is to calculate a well-balanced ration, and 
then by closely watching the cows make such changes in it as seems to suit 
e&'Ch individual case. 

THE SILO. — The silo is an air-tight building for preserving green corn, 
alfalfa, and other forage plants, in such condition as to retain their freshness. 
Such feed is called ensilage, or silage, and is very valuable in feeding dairy 
cows. 

Silos are usually built in the shape of a cylinder, from twelve to twenty 
feet in diameter and from twenty to forty feet high. Any material may be 
used for building a silo. Cement, brick, stone and wood are all used. Silos 
built of brick or cement are becoming more common at the present time. 

The silo prevents much of the loss of feed as it can be handled with little 
or no waste. One writer recently made the statement that SO^'r more cattle 
could be fed with silage than in the usual way. This statement may be ex- 
aggerated somewhat but it is a well established fact that the silo is a feed 
sa-ver. 

Corn grown for silage is not usually planted in hills, but in drills so that 
there may be a stalk about every seven inches in the row. 

The corn should be cut when the grain is fully glazed. At this time the 
lower leaves will be turning yellow and the grains will begin to be hard and 
dented. At this stage it is said to keep much better than wTien ripe or in the 
milk stage. The entire stalk and grain is then run through a cutter and either 
thrown or blown into the silo, where it becomes firmly packed. 

It begins to decay at once causing much heat. The air in the silo is 
changed into carbon dioxide by this process which continues until it is 
stopped by the heat and the exhaustion of the air. 

The entrance of air will cause the silage to mold or decay, 

While it has been proved that silage is one of the cheapest and best 
dairy feeds, it is not likely that a silo will be profitable unless there are as 
many as eight or ten cattle to feed. A cow will eat about half a ton per 
month. 

CARE OF THE DAIRY COW.— It pays to give the cow good shelter and 
plenty of the right kind of feed. Many farmers provide roomy, well ventila^ted 
barns for the cows where they can remain vigorous and healthy, as they should 
be. Cows should be fed and milked at regular hours and should never be 
scolded or struck. Rough usage diminishes the supply of milk. 

COMPOSITION OP MILK. — Since milk contains all the nourishing sub- 
stances essential to the growth of the body, it is a perfect food. It contains 
water to quench thirst and which is necessary for all growth; protein to pro- 
duce flesh and muscle; ash or mineral matter to make bone; fat and sugar to 
furnish warmth and energy. 

These materials appear in about the following proportions: 

Water ^'^ P^^ ^^'f^^- 

Casein and Albumen ( protein ) 3.3 per cent. 

Mineral matter 0.7 per cent. 

Pg^j. 4 per cent. 

Sugar ' '.'.'.\V^'.'.V^'.V.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. . . . . ■ ■'■ 5 per cent. 

Fat is the most valuable part of milk. It is lighter than the other parts 
and rises to the top, forming with certain other parts the cream of which butter 
is made. The commercial value of milk is largely determined by the amount 
of fat it contains. . . 

A Quart of milk contains about the same amount of nutriment as eight 
eggs or three-fourths of a pound of beef-steak, and compared with eggs or 
meat is a cheap food. 



27 

CARE OF MILK. 

Healthy cows naturally produce pure milk, but, since milk is a substance 
that is favorable to the growth of bacteria, it often happens that it becomes 
impure before it reaches the consumer. This is due to careless and improper 
methods of handling and to unsanitary conditions in the barn. The follow- 
ing conditions are necessary in order to have sw^eet, clean milk. 

1. A barn ventilated in such a way as to remove dust, odors, bad air, etc. 

2. The cows must be cleaned before milking. Dirty cows cause the milk 
to become dirty. 

3. The milker must be a healthy person who has clean hands and clean 
clothes. 

4. All utensils used in the dairy should be scalded and, if possible, 
exposed to steam so as to kill all bacteria. 

5. Milk pails should have small tops so that they will admit less dirt. 

6. Since feeding always gives rise to disagreeable odors and more or less 
dust it should be done after the milking time. 

7. As soon as possible after the milk is drawn it should be aired and 
then cooled to a temperature of 50 degrees F. or lower. This prevents the 
development of bacteria which causes it to sour or spoil otherwise. 

PASTEURIZED MILK.— It has been found that by heating milk to a tem- 
perature of about 160 degrees F. and then cooling it rapidly to 50 degrees F., 
it is possible to destroy all disease germs and make the milk keep sweet much 
longer. This process, called pasterurization, does not otherwise affect the 
milk, and may be done in the home without the use of machinery. Pasteurized 
milk should be marked as such, and should be used before it becomes old as 
it contains certain spore forms that are not killed by the heat. 

THE CREAM SEPARATOR. 

CREAMING. — There are three ways of separating the cream from the milk. 

1.. The "shallow pan setting" is the oldest and, to date, the one most 
commonly used. The milk is "set" in pans or crocks about four inches deep 
to allow the cream to rise. This method leaves an average of about V2 per 
cent of fat in the skim-milk. 

2. The "deep setting method" is used when a large quantity of milk 
is to be handled. The milk is poured into large cans which are surrounded 
by cold water. After the cream rises the skim milk is drawn off through a 
faucet in the bottom of the can. This method is better than the first, leaving 
only about 3/10 per cent of butter fat in the milk. 

3. The centrifugal bowl separator is a machine for separating the cream 
from milk while fresh. It is the quickest and most effective method, leaving 
only from 0.02 to 0..08 per cent of fat in the milk. The milk is poured into 
a rapidly whirling metal bowl, and the skim milk being heavier than cream, 
is thrown by the action of centrifugal force to the outer edge of the bowl 
where it is carried out by a* spout. The cream, being lighter, seeks the 
center and passes out through another spout. 

WEIGHING AND TESTING OF MILK.— Records should be kept of the quan- 
tity of milk produced by each cow and of the per cent of butter fat the milk 
contains, in order that the owner may know which ones are the most profitable. 
Many cows do not produce enuf fat to pay their board and are called "boarders" 
or "robber cows." 

To make it easy to keep these records a good spring balance weighing 
pounds and tenths of pounds should be kept hanging near a record sheet in 
the barn. To secure the best results the milk should be weighed each time 
just after it is drawn from the cow. Fairly accurate results may be obtained 
by weighing the milk one day each week for three weeks of the month, or 
by weighing it for three days at the beginning of each month and multiplying 
the sum of the weights by ten to get the yearly production. 



28 

The best method for determining the percentage of butter fat in milk is 
inown as the Babcock test. It was invented by Professor S. M. Babcock of 
the University of Wisconsin. 

By its use the dairyman learns which cows are "boarders," and which 
are profitable. 

If possible every school should own a Babcock tester. A small one may 
he procured for $5 or $6. Full directions come with each machine and it 
will prove a very profitable exercise to have pupils test milk for the whole 
sommunity. 

In making this test, a measured quantity (17.6 cubic centimeters) of milk 
is put into a bottle with a long, graduated neck, and 17.5 c. c. of sulphuric 
acid is mixed with it. The acid dissolves all the milk except the fat which 
is set free. The acid causes the mixture to become very hot and dark-colored. 
After the liquids have been mixed thoroughly, the bottle or bottles are put 
into the tester and the handle turned 4 or 5 minutes at the proper speed for 
the machine in use, to separate the fat so that it can be measured. It is 
tighter than the remainder of the milk and will be forced to the surface. 
Snuf hot water is then added to bring the contents up to the bottom of the 
neck of the bottle. 

A second whirling of about two minutes brings the fat above this water. 
Enuf hot water is again added to bring the fat within the graduations on the 
neck of the bottle. A third whirling of one minute brings all the fat together 
in a clear column in the neck of the bottle where the amount may be read 
©n the scale. The difference between the graduations at the extreme top and 
Bottom of the column of fat is the percentage of fat in the milk. If the top 
reading is 6.8, and the bottom 2.6 the difference is 4.2, which is the percentage 
of fat or the number of pounds of fat in 100 pounds of the milk tested. 

NOTE. — Sulphuric acid is a poison and should be handled with extreme 
Bare. If it is spilled on anything, use plenty of water and add lime or 
soda, to neutralize it. 

This test is also used by dairymen who no longer buy niilk by the gallon 
litut pay for the amount of butter fat it contains. 

KINDS OF MILK. 

1. Whole milk (unskimmed). 

2. Skimmed milk. 

3. Buttermilk. 

W^hen a cow is just fresh the milk is called colostrum, or "calves' milk." 
'it is very rich in albumen, containing about ten times as much as it does in 
Us normal state. Colostrum changes to what is commonly known as milk, in 
about ten days. It should not be used before the change. 

FORMS OF MARKET MILK. 

CERTIFIED MILK is that which meets the demands of the milk commis- 
sioners for the highest grade of clea-n, safe milk. It is produced under strict 
regulations which require the inspection of experts of the barns, milk-rooms, 
milkers and methods of handling and delivering. 

STANDARDIZED MILK is that which has been mixed in such a manner as 
Id give any required percentage of fat. 

LEGAL MILK is that which usually contains not less than 3 per cent of 
Butter fa-t, and at least 12 per cent of solids. 

MILK REGULATIONS. 

Such diseases as typhoid fever, scarlet fever, or diphtheria are often 
caused by unclean milk. Therefore many cities will not permit milk to be 
shipped from a farm on which there is a case of any of these diseases. Water 
Tprhich, contains typhoid bacilli is sometimes used by careless persons for wash- 



29 



fumfsr^ilf ?nVth'^""-f ^^'^Vr.^ tuberculin lest be made on all animals fiat 

BUTTER MAKING. 
F.hZnL^r^^'i temperature for churning ranges from '.56 degrees to 6'> deerees 

mMmmmmm 

with'?readier sill'" "'''''' ^'""P^*^ ^"^ ^^^^^^^ -^^h oiled paper, it meets 
package''' " ^"'^'' '^^ ^*^ ^^^°^' ^«^-' ^^^^ or texture, amount of salt and 



CHEESE. 



re^rr. "4 -L v\r vi ;-?r,T „-a:.'sr. '--- - — - 

form of curds are separated trom the water or whey wh ch L dr,„„ ^ 

=ar3,L^d%rs^;r.^r^-err-t .1%^^^^^^^ 



30 

FREE BULLETINS, U. 3. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

No. 

29. Souring of Milk. 

42. Facts About Milk. 

55. The Dairy Herd. 

57. Butter Making on the Farm. 

63. Care of Milk on the Farm. 

71. Essentials in Beef-Production. 

74. Milk as Food. 

106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 

166. Cheese Making on the Farm. 

280. A Proflla'ble Tenant Dairy Farm. 

351. The Tuberculin Test. 

201. The Cream Separator on Western Farms. 

SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY CATTLE. 

Perfect 
General Appearance. Score. 

Form: wedge-shaped as viewed from the front, side and top 5 

Form: spare, as indicated by prominent joints and clean bone and lack of 

muscular development a-long ribs and loins 8 

Quality: hair fine, soft; skin pliable, loose, medium thickness; secretion 

yellow, abundant 8 

Constitution: vigorous, as indicated by alert expression, evidently active 

vital functions, and general healthy appearance 6 

Head and Neck. 

Muzzle: clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large 1 

Eyes : large, bright 1 

Face: lean, long; quiet expression 1 

Forehead : broad, slightly dished 1 

Ears : medium size ; fine text ure , 1 

Neck: fine, medium length; throat clean; light dewlap 1 

Forequarters and Hindquarters. 

Withers: lean, thin; shoulders, angular,, not fleshy 3 

Hips: far apart; not lower than spine; i 

Rump : long, wide, comparatively level ; ^ 5 

Thurls: high, wide apart I 

Thighs: thin, long 2 

Legs: straight, short; shank fine 1 

Body. 

Chest: deep; with large girth and broad on floor of chest; well-sprung rib. 10 

Abdomen: large, deep; indicative of capacity; well supported 4 

Back: lean, straight; chine open 2 

Tail : long, slim, with fine switch 2 

Loin : broad 2 

Udder: large, long; attached high and full behind; extending far in front 

and full ; quarters even 20 

Udder: capacious, flexible, with loose, pliable skin covered with short, 

fine hair 10 

Teats : convenient size, evenly placed 2 

Milk veins: large, tortuous, long, branching, with large milk wells 4 

Total 100 

SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE. 

Perfect 
General Appearance. Score. 
Weight: estimated pounds; actual- pounds; score accord- 
ing to age 10 



31 

f'oim: straight top and bottom lines; deep, broad, low set, compact, sym- 
metrical • • 10 

Quality: hair, fine; bone, fine but strong; skin, pliable; mellow even 
covering of firm flesh; especially in region of valuable cuts; absence 

of ties and rolls 10 

Condition; thrifty, well fleshed, but not excessively fat; deep covering of 

firm flesh 10 

Head: clean, symmetrical; quiet expression; mouth and nostrils, large; 
lips, moderately thin; eyes, large, clear, placid; face, short; forehead, 

broad, full ; ears, medium size, fine texture, erect 5 

Neck: thick, short, tapering, neatly from shoulder to head; throat, clean. 2 

Shoulder vein : full 2 

Shoulder: well covered with flesh; compact 3 

Brisket: full broad, but not too prominent; breast wide 1 

Dewlap : skin not too loose and drooping 1 

Chest: deep, wide, full 1 

Crops : full, thick, broad 3 

Ribs: long, arched, thickly fleshed 8 

Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 8 

Loin: thick, broad; thickness extending well forward 8 

Flank : full, low, thick 2 

Hips: smoothly covered; width in proportion with other parts, but not 

prominent 2 

Rump: long, level, wide and even; tailhead smooth, not patchy 2 

Pin bones: not prominent, width in proportion with other parts 1 

Thighs: full, fleshed well down to hock 3 

Twist : deep, full ; purse in steers full 4 

Legs: straight, short; arm, full; shank, fine, smooth 4 

Total 100 



SWINE. 

Swine, or hogs as they are often called, are raised in large numbers 
throughout America. Our present breeds of hogs have been developed from 
the wild hogs of Europe, Asia and Africa. 

The hog excels all other animals in the cheap production of meat. There 
is very little waste in a hog carcass, as it "dresses out" from 70 to 85 pounds 
of food to every 100 pounds live weight. 

The hog will make more money for the farmer in proportion to its cost 
than any other animal. As it requires about five pounds of corn to produce 
one pound of hog flesh, it may be readily seen that it is cheaper to ship the 
hogs than it is to ship the corn which they eat. In addition to the grain which 
they consume, hogs will eat waste products which other animals will not 
touch. 

Another argument in favor of feeding farm products to hogs instead of 
selling them is the value of the manure which is estimated as being worth 
$12 per year for each anima-l. 

The breeds of hogs are divided into two classes known as the lard or fat 
type, and the bacon or lean type. 

LARD HOGS. 

Hogs of this type have well-developed hams and shoulders, small heads, 
short thick necks, and deep, fat sides. As the name implies, they produce 
large quantities of fat. 

The leading breeds of swine in America of the fat type are: 

1. BERKSHIRES, black in color, with white markings and ears erect. 

2. POLAND-CHINA, black, with six white points and drooping ears. 

3. DUROC-JERSEYS, cherry red or chestnuts, with ears that point for- 
wards and downwards. 

4. CHESTER WHITE, white, with drooping ears. 

5. VICTORIA, white, with occasional dark spots on the skin, ears erect 
and a good coat of fine, soft hair. 

6. ESSEX, black, with erect ears and no white markings. 

7. CHESHIRE, white, with erect ears. 

8. SMALL YORKSHIRE, white, with occasional black markings. Very 
email. 

9. MULE-FOOT, black, with white markings. Hoofs solid like those of 
a mule. A very hardy breed. 

BACON HOGS. 

Hogs of this type have long legs, long, narrow bodies, long necks and 
long, deep sides. They produce most of the expensive cuts of meats, such as 
choice hams and breakfast bacon. The leading breeds of this type are: 

1. TAMWORTH, red or chestnut hair, long, straight snouts and large 
pointed ears. 

2. LARGE YORKSHIRE, white, with occasional blue spots. Long, deep 
bodies. Yorkshire bacon is said to be the best. 

3. HAMPSHIRE, black, with a broad, white belt encircling the body and 
with white fore legs. Ears inclined forward. 

According to size, the breeds of hogs are sometimes grouped as follows: 

LARGE BREEDS. 



MEDIUM BREEDS. 



1. 


Chester White. 


2. 


Lari^e Yorkshire. 


3. 


Tamworth. 


1. 


Cheshire. 





Berkshire. 


3. 


Poland-China. 


4. 


Durcc-Jersey. 


.5. 


Hp.mpsbire. 


6. 


Victoria. 


7. 


I\Iulp-Foot. 



33 

SMALL BREEDS. 

1. Essex. 

2. Small Yorkshire. 

CARE OF HOGS. 

When hogs are raised in large numbers they should have plenty of pasture. 
When allowed to run with cattle they use the corn aod other feeds which the 
cattle waste. 

Small houses called "colony houses," which are scattered widely about 
the hog pasture, are coming into use very rapidly. The object of these houses 
is to prevent hog cholera, the most serious obstacle which confronts the hog- 
grower. They provide a certain isolation which prevents the spread of disease. 

The United States Bureau of Animal Industry has prod"uced a remedy 
recently whereby hog cholera can be controlled. Using as a basis the fact that 
one attack rendered a-n animal immune for the rest of its life, they experi- 
mented until they discovered what they term an absolute preventive. In this 
method virulent blood is drawn from a diseased pig. This virulent blood is 
injected into the veins of a pig that has recovered recently from an acute 
attack of cholera. After nine or ten days the blood of this pig becomes potent 
and will, when injected into the veins of susceptible hogs, prevent them from 
taking the disease. 

In order to secure good results, this work must be done with great precis- 
ion, but it is believed that its application will save the farmers many millions 
of dollars. 

A letter of inquiry addressed to the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, 
D. C, will bring much interesting information concerning hog-vaccination. 

References: Free Bulletins, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

No. 

100. Hog-Raising in the South. 

133. Profitable Crops for Pigs, pp. 27-29. 

183. Meat on the Farm. 

222. Market Classes and Grades of Swine. 

272. A Successful Hog and Seed Corn Farm. 

296. Grinding Corn for Hogs. 

379. Hog Cholera. 

329. Hogging Off Corn. 

SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES: 

1. At the present prices for corn and hogs, which would be more profitable 
to feed corn to hogs or to sell it by the bushel? 

2. Name the breeds of hogs raised in your community. 

3. What advantage is there to the farmer in raising "blooded" pigs? 

4. Which do hogs prefer, clean or filthy sleeping quarters? 

.5. Describe the different plans of housing and feeding hogs in your neigh- 
borhood. 

6. What annual profit may be reasonably expected from a good brood sow? 

HOG SCORE CARD— LARD (FAT) TYPE. 

Perfect 
General Appearance. Score. 

1. Weight : score according to age 6 

2. Form: deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact, standing squarely 

on legs 10 

3. Quality: hair, silky; skin, fine; bone, fine; mellow covering of 
flesh, free from lumps and wrinkles 10 

4. Condition: deep, even covering of flesh and fat over all parts of body. 10 

Head and Neck. 

5. Snout: medium length, not coarse 1 

6. Eyes : full, mild, bright 1 

7. Face: short, cheeks full 1 

8. Ears : fine, medium size, soft 1 

9. Jowl : strong, neat, broad 1 

10. Neck : thick, medium length 1 



34 

Forequarters. 

11 Shoulders: broad, deep, full, compact on top / 6 

3 2. Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; pasterns upright; feet, 

medium size 

Body. 

13. Chest: deep, broad, large girth * 

14 Sides: deep, lengthy, full; ribs, close and well sprung b 

15. Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 1^ 

16. Loins : wide, thick, straight ° 

17. Belly : straight, even 

Hindquarters. 

18. Hips: wide apart, smooth * 

19. Rump: long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight ^ 

20. Hams: heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 10 

21. Thighs: fleshed close to hock •' V; ' "; ' » 

22. Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; pasterns upright; teet, 

medium size 

Total 100 

HOG SCORE CARD— BACON TYPE. 

Perfect 

General Appearance. Score. 

6 

10 



1. Weight: score according to age 

2. Form: long, level, smooth, deep .:," i' V " 

3. Quality: hair fine; skin thin; bone fine; firm covering ot flesh free 

from bunches of fat and wrinkles • , 1^ 

4. Condition: deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in region of 

high-priced cuts 

Head and Neck. 

5. Snout : fine, medium length j 

6. Eyes : full, mild and bright j 

7. Face : slim - 

8. Ears: fine, medium size | 

9. Jowl : light, trim • | 

10. Neck: medium length, light 

Forequarters. 

11. Shoulders: smooth, compact and same width as back and hindquarters 6 

12. Breast: wide and full '■'il'"/': 

13. Legs: straight, short, strong; bones clean; pasterns upright; teet 

medium 

Body. 

14. Chest: deep, full girth ^ 

15 Back: medium, uniform in width, smooth ° 

16. Sides: long, smooth, level from shoulders to hindquarters w 

17. Ribs: deep, uniformly sprung / V ■ ', -.n 

18. Belly: trim, firm, thick, without flabbiness or shrinkage at flank iu 

Hindquarters. 

19. Hips: wide apart, smooth ^ 

20. Rump: long, even, straight, rounded toward tail ^ 

21 Hams: firm, round, tapering, fleshed deep and low » 

22'. Legs: straight, short, strong; feet, medium size; bone, clean; pas- 
terns upright 

Total 10« 



35 

POULTRY RAISING. 

Farm poultry consists of domestic fowls, or chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks 
and guinea fowls. Of these kinds chickens are most common. There is hardly 
a farm or a home that does not have its flock of chickens. .Many farmers have 
small flocks of turkeys, geese and ducks. Formerly chickens were a^llowed to 
grow without any particular attention and anything in the way of eggs, meat 
and feathers which they produced was considered clear gain. At this time 
they are receiving careful attention aod are proving themselves a profitable 
source of revenue. Statistics show that nearly $700,000,000 worth of poultry 
and eggs are produced annually in America. 

It is supposed that our domestic fowls originated from the jungle fowl of 
India. 

BREEDS OF CHICKExXS. 

There are four well-defined breeds of chickens grouped according to their 
purposes: (1) Egg breeds, (2) meat breeds, (3) dual-purpose breeds, (4 I orna- 
mental or fancy breeds. 

1. EGG BREEDS. — Many varieties of chickens are kept for egg produc- 
tion. They are small, light weight chickens, with large combs, which mature 
early and begin laying very young. Some of the common varieties of the egg 
breeds are as follows: Leghorn, Minorca, Spanish, Blue Andalusian and 
Ancona of the Mediterranean family, and the Red Caps of the English family. 

2. MEAT BREEDS. — The varieties of the meat breeds are heavy, low- 
maturing fowls that belong to the Asiatic fa-mily. They are not noted for their 
egg-laying, but their meat is excellent. The Brahmas, Cochins, Langshans, 
Dorkings and Indian Games belong to this group. 

3. DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS.— Most of the varieties of this breed, but 
not all, belong to the American family. They are medium in weight, their 
meat is nice and tender, and they are good layers. These chickens are the best 
for farmers to keep. This group includes the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, 
Javas, Dominiques, Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons and Houdons. Some authori- 
ties class the Dorkings and Indian Games also as general-purpose fowls. 

4. ORNAMENTAL, OR FANCY BREEDS.— The Bantam.<3, Polish, Sultans, 
Frizzles, Silkies, and Games (except Indian Games), are included in this group 
of chickens. They are kept mainly for fighting and for show purposes. 

CARE OF CHICKENS. 

FEEDING. — When chickens are allowed to roam over a large range they 
easily find for themselves a balanced ration consisting of insects and seeds, 
but Vvhen they are confined in pens or coops the feeding problem becomes a-n 
important one. They must be fed foods that will produce eggs, or meat or 
both, according to the particular purpose. 

Laying hens require food rich in protein. A dry mash is used by many 
poultrymen for egg production. This is made by mixing a number of finely 
ground grains together and feeding them dry from a hopper. In addition to 
this dry mash, whole gra-in should be scattered in the straw or litter so that 
the chickens will have to scratch for it, thereby getting the exercise which 
they need. 

Skim milk, meat scrap, insects and plenty of green food should be fed to 
produce the best results. In winter, oats which have been sprouted on boards 
or in flat boxes in a warm room, cabbage, beets and turnips meet the require- 
ment for green food. 

Henp have no teeth, so they must have access to oyster shells, sa-nd, ground 
bone or grit which are taken into their gizzards to grind the food. Since these 
materials contain much lime, thej^ are also used for making egg shells. An 
abundance of fresh water should be supplied daily. 

Another system of feeding chickens, known as the "wet mash" .system, 
consists in giving them wet ground feed d&ily suppplemented by dry grain at 
times. 



36 

Pupils Mhould be encouraged to tell about the systems ot feeding and 
watering followed in their neighborhood and of the rations fed. 

HOUSING. — Chickens should have comfortable, clean, well-ventilated 
houses in which to roost and lay eggs. These houses should face the south 
or south-east in order to shut off the coldest winds, and to allow the sunlight 
to reach every part. In many houses the south side is made up of windows and 
muslin curtains, thus admitting light and air and preventing drafts. Extra 
cloth curtains are often hung so that they may be pulled down in front of the 
roosts on cold nights. 

The roosts should be built along the north side of the I'oom with a platform 
aBout six inches below them to keep the floor and nests clean. If space is 
limited the nests may be built under this platform. 

The floor should be dry and covered with deep litter in which the whole 
grain is fed. Scratching for the grain will keep the chickens strong and 
healthy. The litter should be kept fresh and clean. Some poultrymen hang 
vegetables a little above the floor, so that the birds are forced to jump for 
bites of them. This gives them m.ore exercise and of a different kind than 
that afforded by scratching. 

Boxes filled with fine ashes and dry soil should be put in sunny places, so 
that the birds can wallow in them. They like to do this, and the dust aids in 
keeping them free from lice. 

The roosts, nests and platform should be made so they can be removed 
easily and cleaned. Whitewash, containing some disinfectant, should be used 
liberally on the interior, and scalding water and sunlight should be employed 
often as cleansing agents. Spray crude oil (petroleum) on the walls, nests, 
boxes and roosts once a week in warm weather. 

With provisions for ventilation, drinking fountains and self-feeding hoppers, 
we may feel certain that our domestic fowls are cared for properly, and they 
will amply repay such attention. Artificial heat often leads to sickness among 
fowls, hence it is not desirable in a poultry house. 

DRINKING FOUNTAINS. — As chickens require much water to drink, it 
should be supplied to them in liberal quantities and in clea-n ways. A simple 
but effective water fountain may be made by making a hole on one side of a 
can or jar about one-half inch from the top. The jar should be filled with 
water a^nd covered by a shallow pan. When the fountain is inverted the water 
will flow down ir.to the pan, and will continue to do so as fast as it is used. 
These fountains should be cleaned daily and kept filled with fresh water. 

INCUBATORS AND BROODERS.— An incubator is a machine that hatches 
eggs by keeping them at the same tempera-ture as when covered by a hen. 
When eggs are to be hatched in large numbers the incubator is much cheaper 
than feeding a number of hens to do the work. An additional advantage 
claimed for the incubator is that its use causes the hens to begin laying sooner 
than they would if they were used as sitters and brooders. 

Chickens hatched artificially are usually reared in brooders which take the 
place of the mother hen in affording warmth and protection. 

Incubators and brooders may be seen and their workings explained in 
nearly any hardware store or place where implements are sold. 

PERIOD OF INCUBATION. 

PERIOD OF INCUBATION.— Chicken, 21 days. Duck, 2S days. Turkey, 
2S days. Guinea. 25 days. Goose. 28 days. 

PRESERVING EGGS. — The growth of a germ which makes its entrance 
through the shell in a way that is not fully understood, ca-uses the egg sub- 
stances to decay. This decay is more rapid in the summer for the reason that 
warmth favors the development of the germs. 

The most satisfactory way to preserve eggs is to select clean (not washed) 
fresh ones and pack them in a- jar that has been rinsed thoroughly with boiling 
water. Then pour over the eggs a solution consisting of tw^elve parts of boiled 
water, cooled to ordinary temperature, and one part of sodium silicate, which 
is commonly known as "water-glass" and which may be purchased at a- drug 



37 

store, covering them to the depth of one inch. Eggs treated in this manner 
and kept in a dry, cool and dark place, will keep indefinitely. 

It will prove a profitable exercise to have pupils preserve some eggs in 
April and May (these months are the best) for use the following winter. 

EXERCISES. 

1. How does a chicken drink? Why? 

2. Explain the methods in use in your neighborhood for testing eggs. 

3. Is there any advantage, in marketing eggs, in having them uniform in 
size and color? 

4. Have pupils make and keep an egg record from their flocks of chickens. 
Compare frequently with others and explain the difference, if possible. 

5. Name and describe all the varieties of poultry raised in your neighbor- 
hood. 

6. Find out by observation and inquiry whether chickens pay for them- 
selves or not. 

7. Keep an account with poultry. 

8. Write to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for the fol- 
lowing: 

FARMERS BULLETINS. 
No. 

41. Fowls: Care and Feeding. 

51. Standa-rd Varieties of Chickens. 

64. Ducks and Geese. 

128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 

141. Poultry Raising. 

177. Squab Radsing. 

182. Poultry as Food. 

200. Turkeys: Varieties and Management. 

234. The Guinea Fowl. 

236. Incubation and Incubators. 

287. Poultry Management. 

355. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 

390. Pheasant Raising in the United States. 

452. Capons and Caponizing. 

The following bulletins contain much useful and interesting material on 
poultry feeding, poultry-house construction, preserving eggs, incubators and 
other phases of poultry farming: 

Nos. 84. 97, 103, 114, 122, 225, 227, 273, 281, 296, 305, 309. 

SCORE CARD— POULTRY BREEDING. 

Breed Va-riety Sex 

Weight 

Rel. Val. Rel. Val. Total. 

in shape. in color. Rel. Val. 

Symmetry 4 

Weight or size 4 

Condition 4 

Comb 8 

Head 2 2 4 

Beak 2 2 4 

Eyes 2 2 4 

Wattles and ear-lobes 2 3 5 

Neck 3 5 • 8 

Wings 4 5 9 

Back 6 5 11 

Tail 5 5 10 



3S 



Breast 6 5 11 

Body and fluff i> 3 8 

Legs and toes 3 • 3 6 

Total 100* 

*Note: These relative values are given for the American Class. They 
differ on some points for the Asiatic and Mediterranean Classes. 



39 

SHEEP. 

HISTORY AND USES.— It is supposed that our domestic sheep are descend- 
ants of the strong and agile wild sheep known as Argali, tha? hve on the 
plains of Asia, and those of Southeastern Europe, known as Mu^mln 

Sheep are mentioned frequently in the Bible, they being used in ancient 
r^Z T ''Ti^'J'"'''^ ^^^ ,''^°'''^^^ ^°'" ^^^" ^""^ f°'- sacrificial purposes. Uke 
stomachs^ "^ '''' ''''''^' '^'^ '^"^ ^^^ ^"'^' ^^^^ «^«^^^ l^««fs and four 

Sheep are valued for the production of wool and mutton. Since they in- 
crease rapidly and can live on a great diversity of food, they should be ken t 
on every farm. In addition to their other good qualities, they are useful n 
helping to maintain the fertility of the land over which they graze 

twn^SfJP^T^*'^^^,^'^ ^""^^ ^'^^^"^ ^°'" ^^°1 °^' °i"tton, hence we have the 
two g eat classes known as mutton breeds and ivooi breeds Since 
these classes are not wholly distinct, they are more commonly grouped ac^ 
cording to the length or fineness of their wool. siuupea ac 

The following breeds are found in America: 

I. Fine or Short- Wooled Breeds- 

FrentS^MenSo.^'''''"' '"''"'''' ''''*''"' ^''^ I^n^bouillet (Ran-boo-ye) or 

These breeds have descended from Spanish stocks. They are hardv ani- 

rjngth^ ^°°^ ^"^"'""- ^'''"' ^''''' '' ""''^ ^^" ^" ~^"^"t^ ^^d uniform^a 

II. Medium-Wooled Breeds: 

ChevlofanrTunl^.™'''^''"' ^""^"'"^ °°''''' ^"'"""^ °^'''^' ^^^^P^^^^'^' Suffolk, 

III. Coarse, or Long- Wooled Breeds: 
Lincoln, Cotswold and Leicester. 

The first group are the best wool breeds, while the other two groups are 
grown principally for mutton. ^loups are 

However, it must be kept in mind that the fine- wooled sheep are even- 
tually converted into mutton, and that wool is sheared from the medium 
and coarse-wooled sheep. meuium, 

on.t?''^f- ^^^. FEEDING OF SHEEP.-Since sheep have their own warm 
coats, their winter quarters should not be kept warm. They must howeve 

k^t'stuld^blriiraiir^^^' ''' ''' ''^'^ ^"^ '^'^ ^^ -''^- *^^^ - 

Sheep are good grazers and make good use of land that might otherwise 

be worthle.ss. n winter they should be fed plenty of corn fodder, clover 3 

oat straw, turnips and sugar beets. '^iovei nay, 

FREE BULLETINS, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON 

D. C. 

No. 49. Sheep Feeding. 

No. 96. Raising Sheep for Mutton. 

No. 159. Scab in Sheep. 

No. 457. Early Spring Lambs. 

SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON SHEEP. 

■ General Appearance. . . . Score 

Weight: score according to age and breed .... , Perfect 

^°™etricaP* *''^' """"^ ''""^^^ ""^' ^^''^' ^'■°^'^' ^°''' set,' compact.' 'sym- 
Quality: hair fine; bone fine but strong: even covering of firm flesh- fea 
tures refined but not delicate; stylish ^ ' ^^ 



40 

Constitution: chest capacious; brisket well developed; flank deep; bone 

strong; movement bold and vigorous 10 

Condition: thrifty; skin pink; fleece elastic; well fleshed, but not exces- 
sively fat ; deep covering of flrm flesh 5 

Disposition: quiet but not sluggish 2 

Color and markings: according to breed 2 

Head and Neck. 

Muzzle: mouth and nostrils large; lips thin 1 

Eyes : full, bright, clear 1 

Face: short, according to breed 1 

Forehead : broad, full 1 

Ears: texture, fine; size and form, according to breed >^ 1 

Neck: thick, short, neatly tapering to head; throat clean, according to breed 3 

Forequarters. 

Shoulder: covered with flesh; compact, smoothly joined with neck and body 4 

Brisket : well developed ; breast wide 1 

Fore legs: straight, short, set well apart; pasterns upright; feet squarely 

placed, neither close nor sprawling 2 

Body. 

Ribs: long, well sprung, thickly fleshed 3 

Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 5 

Loin : thick, broad, firm 5 

Flank: full, even with under line ., 1 

Hindquarters. 

Hips: level, smoothly covered; width in proportion with other parts 1 

Rump: long, level, wide and even in width; not covered at tailhead with 

excessive fat ^ 3 

Thighs : full, fleshed well down to hock 2 

Twist: deep, plump, flrm indicating fleshiness 5 

Hind legs: straight, short, set well apart; bones smooth, strong, being 
neither coarse nor fine; pasterns upright; feet squarely placed; neither 

close nor sprawling i 3 

Wool. 

Quantity: long, dense, even, according to breed .,. . 5 

Quality: structure and color true; fine, soft, even, according to breed 5 

Condition: strong, bright, clean, slight amount of yolk 4 

Total 100 

SCORE CARD FOR WOOL SHEEP. 

Perfect 
General Appearance. . . . Score. 

Form: level, deep, stylish; round rather than square 8 

Quality: clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6 

Head an^ Neck. 

Muzzle: fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white . 1 

Eyes: large, clear, placid 1 

Face: wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat 1 

Forehead : broad, full . . . j 1 

Ears: soft, thick, velvety 1 

Neck: short, muscular, well set on shoulders 1 



41 

Forequarters. 

Shoulder: strong, deep and broad 4 

Brisket: projecting forwards; breast wide 1 

Legs: straight, short, wide apart, shank smooth and fine 2 

Body. 

Chest: deep, full indicating constitution 10 

Back: level, long; round ribbed 4 

Loin: wide, level j 4 

Flank: low, making under line straight 2 

Hindquarters. 

Hips : far apart, level, smooth 2 

Rump : long, level, wide .^ 4 

Legs: straight, short, strong; shank, smooth, fine 2 

Wool. 
Quantity: long, dense, even covering, especially ovei- crown, cheek, armpit, 

hind legs, and belly 15 

Quality: fine fiber; crimp close, regular; even quality, including tops of 

folds 15 

Condition: bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even disti'ibution of yolk, 

with even surface to fleece 15 

Total 100 



42 
HORSES. 

HISTORY AND BREEDS. 

When the Spaniards came to North America they did not find any horses, 
hence they soon brought over a number to Cuba, Mexico and the southern 
confines of the United States. The English in colonizing the Atlantic Coast 
soon found a need for horses and imported the breeds then common to England 
and, France. 

Where the climatic conditions and food were favorable the horses became 
a large type, but where these conditions were unfavorable there was produced 
the small type of horse, such as the Shetland pony or the burros of the 
mountainous countries. For convenience horses may be divided into three 
general groups, viz., Draft, Carriage, and Roadster breeds. 

The typical draft horses have short and stout legs. Their body is nearly 
cylindrical and should be of a depth equal to the length of the legs. They 
should have upright shoulders, and a very wide hock. The legs 
should be straight. A straight line from the shoulder to the hoof should 
divide the knee, fetlock and foot into two equal parts. Among the draft 
breeds may be mentioned the Percheron, from France; the Belgian from 
Belgium; the Clydesdale from Scotland and the English Shire from England. 
The Percherons are usually gray or black. The English Shire is commonly 
a black or a bay. The Clydesdale has much the appearance of the Shire, but 
is somewhat smaller. 

The carriage or coach horse is much lighter in weight than the draft 
horse. They are used to draw heavy carriages. They might be called the 
combination horse as they combine strength, style and action. The Cleveland 
Bay Coach is from England, the French Coach from France, the German 
Coach from Germany and the Hackney from England. 

The roadsters have a light bone, their legs, however, being longer than 
those of the draft. They represent the highest type of speed. There are 
three distinct types of roadsters, the American trotting or pacing horse, the 
Thoroughbred, the English running horse and the Saddle horse from Kentucky 
and adjoining states. The American bred trotters have more than been able 
to compete with foreign bred horses. The importation of the trotting horse 
into America began about 1790 when "Imported Messenger" was brought here. 
Many of his descendants have become famous sires. Enormous sums are 
often paid for a single horse. In 1913 $250,000 was paid for Prince Palatine, 
an English thoroughbred. Dan Patch is one of the most famous of the 
American pacers, having a record of 1.55%. For a horse to make such a 
record means that he must travel about 45 feet a second. Trotters and pacers 
that travel miles in 2:04 or better, often step 20 feet. 

A thoroughbred is a running horse. England has developed the running 
horse to a higher degree of speed than has the American horseman. Many 
running horses are able to make a mile at the rate of 1% minutes for a mile. 

The saddle horse is a product of Kentucky, being used extensively in the 
hilly regions. He can be taught several gaits. 

CARE. — The horse does not have a very large stomach, hence the food 
must not be too bulky. Although the horse shows much strength and endur- 
ance it becomes sick very easily. Much attention should be given to the 
sudden changing from dry food to green food such as oats, clover or corn. 
When the horse is heated it is not a good plan to feed it much grain or let 
it drink large quantities of cold w'ater. There are two general classes of 
foods, carbohydrates and protein; grains contain much more carbohydrates 
than protein. The carbohydrates produce fat and heat and the protein produces 
muscle. Horses should be fed regularly, the heavier meal being given at the 
supper. It is not advisable to feed a horse corn and hay three times a day 
for a month at a time. Oats is a good food and the working or driving horse 
should be given some at least once a day. A bran mash should be given at 
least once a week. This is made by heating bran and water. It should be 



43 

flavored with salt. Dusty hay should never be fed to horses unless it has 
been well sprinkled. Much care should be used in watering horses when they 
are very warm. A small amount of water will always allay the thirst and 
at the same time will not cause any serious trouble. 

If the horse is to remain in the best of condition, he must be carefully 
groomed both morning and evening. There is not much need of cutting the 
frog of the hoof when shoeing the horse. During the dry season the horses 
hoofs often become brittle and break off causing lameness. This may be a-voided 
by oiling the hoofs frequently— once every two weeks at least. It is a good 
plan to wash, quite often, the under surface of the foot. This is especially 
true where the horse stands in an uncleaned stall. This keeps the frog of 
the foot in a healthy condition and gives the owner the opportunity of dis* 
covering any corns that may be making their appearance. 



HARNESS.— ( Discussion ) . 



What are the two purposes? 



Name all the parts. 

What is the approximate cost of a set? 
How should the collar be fitted to the neck of the horse? 
Some farmers oil their harness at least twice a year and "soap it" at 
at least once a month. Why? How is harness soaped? 

BREAKING COLTS. 

The secret of teaching the colt to obey lies in the two factors, kindness 
and firmness. The average colt requires but little training if he is properly 
handled. The first and most important step is to teach him to lead. After a 
halter has been placed upon him a long common wrapping cord (string) about 
twenty feet long should be secured. The ends should be held in the hand 
and the loop end placed just above the hocks. (A rope is too heavy). By 
standing in front of the colt and pulling lightly on the cord he will soon more 
forward, following wherever you go. This plan is much better than using 
the halter strap alone. Horses should be taught to stand still and not start 
until given the signal. The word "Whoa" to the horse ought to mean to stop. 
The second step in teaching the colt to obey is to drive him about with the 
lines fastened to the halter, the bit being omitted. Colts should seldom be 
jerked, whipped or frightened. The horse is intelligent and will usually do 
what is asked of him. Balking and kicking horses are those that have been 
improperly trained. One new thing a week is enough for a- colt to learn. 

Balky horses may be made to move by the following simple arrangement. 
A brow band should be placed in the middle of a 30 or 40 foot rope. The rope 
should now be placed on the horse as a bridle. When the rope reaches the 
right side of the mouth it should pass through the horse's mouth to the left 
side. The rope on the left side should pass through the mouth to the right- 
side. (It is best to have the rope that passes through the mouth covered with 
leather.) The rope on the left side should pass to the ring in the back 
band, passing through it. Do the same with the right side rope. Gather the 
ends of the rope and stand in front of the horse. By a little practice a balky 
horse can be made to move forward. An even and a light pull should be made 
on the ropes until the art of using them is learned. 

TERMS. 

The HOCK refers to the rear part of the hind knee joint. 
The CANON is the part of the leg between the knee and the fetlock. 
The FETLOCK is the first joint below the knee. 

A PASTERN applies to the space between the fetlock and the coronet or 
upper part of the hoof. 

The part just back of the ears is called the POLL. 



44 

THINGS TO DO AND QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION. 

1. Make a study of the ration of the farm horses in the community. The 
pupils to report on the kinds of feed. 

2. Trace the origin and history of one of the common breeds of pure 
bred horses in the immediate neighborhood. 

3. Make a chart of the pictures of the various breeds of horses. They may 
be obtained from farm magazines oi' from the periodicals devoted to the subject 
of horses. 

4. A light draft horse weighs about 1,500 pounds, a medium draft 1,700, 
and a heavy draft about 2,000 pounds. Classify the draft horses of the 
community. 

5. Does it cost any more to raise a well bred colt than it does a scrub? 

6. Mention some things that were formerly run by horse power. (Such 
as street-cars, corn-sheller, threshing machines and traction plows.) 

7. Will the automobile finally take the place of the horse? 

FREE BULLETINS. 

Horse-shoeing — Bulletin 179, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Principles of Horse-breeding — Bulletin 170, Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

Feeding of Farm Animals— Bulletin 22, Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 



45 

BIRDS. 

BIRD STUDY. — It may be said that the main purpose in the study of birds 
in the public schools is to awaken in the child the powers of observation so 
that he will naturally learn to love and apprecia^te bird life. If the child, or 
adult, for that matter, will familiarize himself as to wha-t the bird is doing, 
he will soon become intensely interested. Judicious discussion and careful ob- 
servation soon arouse the spirit of helpfulness on the part of the student 
and he will in most instances devise ways and means of affording protection 
to the song birds from the weather and from its natural enemy, the cat. Bird 
descriptions are all right in their place, but they can never take the place of the 
individual observation. The logical beginning is the study of the habits of 
the bird— how and where it secures its food, its fight against its enemies, its 
defense of its home and the rearing of the young. 

Birds as a group make their appeal to us through their song, beauty, atti- 
tude toward each other, or for the good they do in the destruction of weeds 
or animal pests. They all seem to have in their constant struggle for ex- 
istence their happy times and their times of sorrow. In the early morning 
all bird life seems to be unusually joyful, but should the young be killed we 
find that the mother bird, especially, hides in the underbrush or hedge rows 
for several da-ys. Her disposition during this period is apparently one of 
sorrow. 

To become familiar with bird lore it is absolutely necessary to enter the 
by-ways, the field and the forest, as it is by this method that we are able 
to get first hand things that give us the joy of discovery. 

It is necessary for the bird to adapt itself to a given community so that it 
may obtain food, be secure from its enemies and rear the young. The peculiar 
structure of a particular group of birds fit it so that it will have the best of 
opportunity to secure its food. The eagle has a strong bill for tearing food and 
sharp talons for grasping and holding its prey. Along with these the long 
sweeping wings of the eagle give it the power of long, rapid flights and of 
remaining in the air for a great length of time. 

Such birds as the wood cocks have long bills which they can push into the 
soft earth and secure the worms near the surface. The wood pecker has a 
sharp bill with which he can bore holes into the trees and is thus able to get 
his food or to make a hole large enough in which he can build his nest. His 
spreading toes also assist him in hanging onto the trunk of the tree while 
he performs his work. Many other examples might be enumerated of the re- 
lation of the form of the bird to its habits. 

If bird study is to be a vital thing and have real meaning it is necessary 
that we become in touch with the bird as it lives out of doors. The essentials 
of bird life are the food and the home, a knowledge of which will cause us to 
assist in the partial domestication of the wild bird by a feeding now and then 
of our feathered friend, and by affording him means of protection. 

PROTECTION OF BIRDS.— There has been growing steadily during the 
past few years a genuine sentiment favorable to the protection of the song 
birds and those whose food consists of destructive quadrupeds or insects. The 
Audubon Societies have done much to l)ring about this condition, but there 
still remains much to be done. In many States the stringent laws are not 
enforced for the reason that many persons fail to appreciate the real worth 
of the birds to the community. Quite frequently nothing is done to add to the 
bird's propagation, but instead an attempt is made to drive them away from the 
locality. Below is briefly mentioned some of the things which birds have to 
contend with in securing food, in rearing their brood, or in living out their 
natural life time. 

1st. Many persons still continue to wea-r the feathers or wings of certain 
birds in their hats. 

2d. The destruction of the nests, eggs, and the young birds by boys or 
men who assume tliat the bird is doing an injury to the fruit or the grain. 

3d. Some quadrupeds such as the weasel, rat, mink, raccoon and fox de- 
stroy birds of all kinds. The cat, however, is the natural enemy of the 
song bird. The good that a cat might do in catching mice and rats is greatly 
overbalanced by the harm it does in killing the young birds. 



46 

4th. The cultivation of the waste lands and the timber tracts lessens the 
natural brooding places, hence the chances for final extermination are much 
increased by this one factor alone. 

5th. Hunters seldom discriminate in the killing of birds. The most bene- 
ficial are slaughtered aJong with those that are apparently injurious or with 
those that are secured for food. 

With some of the more common hindrances to bird propagation in mind 
it is easily seen how some birds are becoming practically extinct. We will all 
agree that the bird is as much a part in the cycle of life as are the trees and 
flowers and that more definite organization be done so that effective work 
can be accomplished. The Audubon Societies" pledge is, "To encourage the 
study of birds, particularly in the schools. To work for the betterment and 
enforcement of State and National la-ws relating to birds. To discourage the 
wearing of feathers and the wanton destruction of wild birds and their eggs." 
Under the auspices of the Audubon Societies there may be organized in every 
school Junior Societies. If carefully organized the children will become in- 
terested in the protection of wild birds. 

In the selection of their nesting place and in the building of the nest 
the bird should be offered some means of protection. To ha-ve the birds 
build their nests in the rose bushes, peach trees, apple trees or in ornamental 
trees near our homes is the vital problem. It may be accomplished within a 
year if the birds are seldom molested. Most birds soon learn to know their 
friends and do not show alarm at their presence. Strings, pieces of cloth, 
cotton and straw placed in the vicinity of the selected nesting places will 
always be used by the birds. Overgrown vines and bushes may be left here 
and there as they will usually attract such as the red bird, the thrashers and 
the robin. Bird houses will also assist in attracting the bird as he is looking 
for a- nesting place. This is especially true of the wren, blue bird, martin and 
swallow. A little attention to grassy spots — the omission of the cutting will 
be a benefit to the finches, bobolink and meadow lark. The screech owl, barn 
owl and swallow will make their homes in the attics of barns and out- 
buildings, if there is an opening where they may enter. One owl in a barn is 
worth a- dozen cats when it comes to the destruction of rats and mice. 

Except during periods of droughts or cold weather birds are able to se- 
cure the necessary food, but very frequently the water supply is what causes 
them to seek what would appear to us more unfavorable quarters. By plac- 
ing a basin of water in the neighborhood of a nest will soon prove how much 
the bird will enjoy the little kindness. Birds aJso bathe quite often and in 
many instances will travel a considerable distance to obtain a drink or a bath. 
It may be said that if the protection of birds is to become of vital moment 
that it must be reached by teaching the child the proper status of the bird 
so that he will respond with acts of helpfulness. It is a difficult proposition 
to enact laws that materially assist in the protection of the birds until a 
proper spirit has been created for obeying them. 

The outline given here on the robin may suggest a genera-l plan of 
studying any of the common birds. 

THE ROBIN. — Although the robin is one of the most common birds, we 
find out daily that there are many things to learn about him. If we will but 
look we will be able to find out many interesting facts. It is by observing a 
bird in its natural home that we become interested and a-ppreciate its real 
purpose in the world and its actual worth. The stories and descriptions of 
birds in books are valuable, but they will not ca-use us to have a better feeling 
toward the bird family as will an hour or two, now and then, spent in the 
field and forest or along the stream. It is possible to learn many things with 
the naked eye, but a field glass may be obtained for a small sum and then the 
bird may be observed as he works or plays — every bird has its play time. Few 
wild birds act naturally if they are aware that they are being watched, hence 
the advantage of a field glass. 

The following brief outline is given for the reason that it may help you 
in becoming better acquainted with the robin (or any other bird for that mat- 
ter.) The suggestions, however, are of but little value unless we experience 
at least a few of them. 



47 

1. Notice when and where the robin sings. Does he sing during a rain? 
Learn to imitate his song. (A boy ought to be able to imita-te any bird that 
he hears). 

2. Selection of the site for his nest. Does his judgment seem good? Do 
they ever partly build a nest and then leave it to start another? 

3. Building of the nest. Do you suppose that it would help the robin 
any if you Avould place a box or pan of mud near the place where he has 
begun the nest? Try it. Of what material is the nest constructed? 

4. Hatching period. Does the mother do all the sitting upon the nest? 
What does the robin do if molested by another bird? Did you ever see a 

robin's nest in a well protected place? 

5. Care of the young. Does the male or female bring most of the food 
to the young? What kind of food is brought? Watch the mother as she 
teaches the young birds to ily and to eat. For severa4 days after the robins 
are hatched thev merely open their mouths to receive the food brought to 
them. Would it not be possible' for you to help the robin during a dry season 
by furnishing him with a supply of fishworms or caterpillars for the four or 
five tiny fledglings? He will carry five or six fishworms at a time. By follow- 
ing this plan you will have the satisfaction of making him your intima-te 
friend. 

6. The food supply. Determine for yourself whether he eats more animal 
food or more cherries. By careful observation you will find that his daily food 
consists of about 60 per cent of animal food and about 35 per cent of wild 
fruit. He will travel quite a- distance to make a dinner on the wild cherry, 
wild grape or the elderberry. The tame cherry crop will be decreased many 
per cent if the robins are driven away. Why? 

7. Peculiar habits or traits. What becomes of the first brood of robins 
while the female is hatching the second brood? Do robins ever fight each 
other? Watch the robin as he gets a cut-worm or an angleworm (fishworm). 
Did you ever see him listen to determine whether an angleworm was working 
near the surface of the soil? 

8. Simple way to help. Did you ever place a shallow pan of water in the 
vicinity of the nest? The robin will use it as a drinking fountain as well as a 
bath tub. Try the experiment. The pleasure that you will have in watching 
him drink and bathe will more than pay for the trouble. The pan should be so 
placed that the birds will be entirely free from danger when drinking or 
bathing. 

The following life histories of common birds are intended to suggest what 
may be worked out about any bird that may be studied: 



BOB WHITE'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY. 

The name which is given to me in books is Colinus Virginianus 
—rather a long name. The name that suits me best, however, is "Bob White" 
although I am often known by the name of quail or partridge. We live in 
nearly all parts of the United States, and as w^e do but little migrating, are 
among the first birds to indicate the coming of spring. Our family of the 
previous summer live together during the fall, winter and early spring months. 
As the spring approaches we divide into small groups of two or four. 

About the middle of April or the first of May the .selection of a nesting 
place is made. It may be quite a distance from the winter home that was 
located in a brush-pile, hedge row, a bunch of grass or in a cluster of leaves 
in a bushy thicket. Our ndsts are usually to be found in bunches of grass, 
near a small bush, by a stump or along an old lane-fence — in same color as 
our coat of feathers. If you will notice closely, you will see that otir feathers 
resemble in color, dead leaves, dead grass or the bark of trees or posts. For 
this reason but very few people are able to see us when in the nest. In many 
nests there will be found as many as two dozen white eggs. As the eggs are 
pointed the mother bird is able to arrange them s© that they may all be 
covered by her. If the eggs were not pointed it would not be possible for 
the small nest to hold all of them. 



48 

During the nesting and hatching season you can hear the male bird in the 
early morning or in the late evening giving his thrilling call, "Bob White." 
The male and female take turns in covering the eggs during the hatching 
season. After the hatching season the whistle FORE-A-FEE, FORE-A-FEE is 
often heard. It is a whistle given to gather together the covey. It will be 
easy for you to discover whether the whistle FORE-A-FEE is given by the 
nuale or female. As any form of danger approa^ches, the young Bob Whites 
scatter and hide in any form of undergrowth. As they become larger, however, 
they endeavor to escape danger by running rapidly in a zig-zag way and then 
by flying in a peculiar undulating manner. The amateur hunter can seldom 
hit us while we are on the wing. 

Our food during the spring, summer and fall months consists mainly of the 
seeds of weeds, chinch bugs, ants, beetles, grass hoppers, potato bugs, cut 
worms, caterpillars and small quantities of gra-in. If farmers would be more 
careful in protecting us from the hunters, it w.ould not be necessary for them 
to spend much time and money destroying the insects that we depend upon for 
food. We hope that sometime the farmer will recognize our worth and will 
give us more protection from the depredations of the annual sportsman. 

As the droughts of the summer approach we seek the nearby streams, but 
return of evenings to our roosting place. During the fall and winter the 
covey sleep in the same place unless they have been disturbed by some noc- 
turnal visitor, such as a weasel, fox or mink. In sleeping we group our- 
selves in the form of a circle upon the ground, all having our heads outward. 
By this method we can more readily discern the approach of an enemy. 
Quite often a number of our family are killed by being covered with deep 
snows. Frequently the deep snows cause many to starve. If a farmer could 
supply us with a small amount of grain during the worst winter months, 
we would pay him back many fold during the summer season by the eating of 
destructive insects. 

THE BIRD THAT SHOWS THE WHITE FEATHER.— Meadowlark. 

With the possible exception of the robin this bird is the first to announce 
the approach of spring in the northern states east of the Mississippi River. 
To appreciate his song the most it must be heard in the early morning as he 
flits from one knoll in a meadow or pasture to another. It is when standing 
on a knoll, post or tuft of grass that he renders his best selection, which con- 
sists of a clear, musical whistle. The earnestness with which he sings attracts 
our attention and we need to hear hira but a few times to be convinced of 
this fact. He is never to be seen standing around and apparently out of 
tune with even the worst weather. Except when seaching for food he walks 
with his head erect and the way in whch he moves is very striking. He 
walks as though he was intimately interested in the work that he is doing. 
He can rightly be called an optimist. 

The meadows and pasture lands are the natural home of this bird. 
Should he arrive at his summer home too early in the spring, as he often 
does, the chances are that he will have some trouble in evading the deep 
snows. He ahvays sleeps on the ground in a tuft of grass. In crossing a 
meadow in the springtime after a light snow you will often be surprised by 
having one spring from his cozy nest where he has been protected from the 
wind and snow. To you and me it wouljl seem to be a lonesome and a dreary 
place to spend the night alone. It is another story if the snow is a deep 
one, as he may be covered to the depth of several inches and in this event 
would freeze or starve. 

In looking for food he walks rapidly through the grass in a stooping 
position. He raises his head quite often to see if the'-e is any danger near. 
It is said that at least three-fourths of his food consists of beetles, ants, grass- 
hoppers, caterpillars and cut-worms. During the spring and fall he eats a 
great number of weed seeds. 

The nests are usually located in a tuft of grass. Generally the nest has 
a natural covering of grass, leaving but one place for entrance. This opening 
is in most instances on the south side of the nest. The feathers on the back 



49 

and wings of the bird bear a close color resemblance to the mixed grasses. 
The bird on the nest is seldom seen by the passerby, as at the approach of 
danger they crouch closer to the ground. There are usually five or six white 
eggs with brown spots. The eggs are often destroyed by snakes or field mice. 

This bird has a bright yellow breast with a black crescent on it; his back, 
wings and sides are of a brown and black. He does a great deal of walking, 
consequently his legs and feet are very strong. The most interesting point 
about his description is that the outer end of the tail feathers are white. 
When he alights he moves the tail feathers very rapidly several times, show- 
ing the white on the ends of the feathers. In a natural flight this white on 
the feathers is also very noticeable. He has but few associates during the 
nesting season. He is known as the bird of the "white feather," because he 
will not enter into combat with another bird. Of course he shows the white 
feather in making a flight, but he also shows it when forced to stand for his 
rights. When trouble appears he evades it by taking flight or by hiding in 
the grass. He seldom offers any resistance to an intruder, even though it be 
an English sparrow. 

Our admiration for the bird ought to increase when we take into con- 
sideration his songs, his destruction of insects and his qualities of peace. 

IDENTIFICATION CHART OF THIRTY COMMON BIRDS. 

1. RED-HEADED WOODPECKER.— 9 to 10 inches in length. Head and 
neck a crimson; wings and back a glossy black, excepting the tips of the wings 
which a-re a white. Breast and under part a white. Eggs are nearly 
spherical. Eats larvae found in wood, ants, insects and nuts. Non-migratory. 
Two or more broods a year. Nest generally in hole in tree. More good than 
harm. 

2. BROWN THRASHER.— 11 to 12 inches in length. Bright, rusty, red back 
and wings. Small bands of white on wings, the breast and under surface are 
white, but marked with brown spots. Long bill and tail; yellow eyes. Eggs 
are white with brown spots. Migratory. Eats insects and berries. Nests 
made from fiber and twigs; located in hedge-rows or bushes, sometimes on the 
ground. Destroy weeds and insect pests. 

3. WHIP-POOR-WILL. 10 inches in length. Color a mixture of brown, 
black and white; white band across breast. Under side of tail feathers white. 
Tail is broad and rounded. Near base of bill, many bristles. Lays two eggs 
that are marked with yellow spots. Nest is on log or bunch of leaves. In 
perching sits lengthwise on limb. Eats insects. A valua-ble bird. 

4. MEADOW-LARK.— 10 to 11 inches in length. Back, wings and sides 
are a brown and black; the breast is a bright yellow with a black crescent. 
Outer end of tail feathers are white. Nest in tuft of grass, in meadows or 
pastures; white eggs with brown spots. Eats beetles, ants, grasshoppers, cater- 
pillars, w^eed seeds and cut-worms. Walks through grass in stooping position 
but raises head quite often. Songster and a destroyer of pests. 

5. DOWNY WOODPECKER.— A little larger than English sparrow. White 
hand down the middle of back, remainder of back and wings striped with 
black and white. Under parts white. Red band on neck of male bird. Eats 
larvae of codling moth, ants, beetles, grasshoppers and wild berries. Often 
runs down trunk of tree. Nest in hole of dead tree. Often miscalled sap- 
sucker. Highly beneficial. 

6. WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.— About 6 inches long. Upper parts of 
of a light slate color, top of head being black, sides of head and under parts a 
white. Wings and tail a slate color mixed with white and black. Eats nuts, 
canker worms, insects, weed seeds, and ma^ny larvae. Does not brace the tail 
against the tree as does the woodpecker. A help to the gardener and fruit 
grower. 

7. SCREECH OWL. — About 10 inches long. Upper parts of a gray or 
brownish red, the under parts a whitish hue or yellow. It is mottled with 



50 

yellow or black. Coats vary quite a great deal. Tufted ears and yellow eyas. 
Nest in hollow tree or attic or building. Eggs very nearly round. Eats mice, 
caterpillars, gi-asshoppers and beetles. Of more value than a cat. 

8. BELTED KINGFISHER. — About thirteen inches long. Wings, tail and 
back are an ashy blue, the wings and tail being marked with spots of white. 
Neck and breast are white with a belt of blue across breast. Crest on head; 
white spot in front of eye. Bill longer than head. Outer toe is fastened to 
middle one for one-half length. Flies near surface of water. Nest in hole in 
side of bluff. Eats fish, frogs, decaying animal matter,, bird eggs and mol- 
lusks. Eggs, white. Practically harmless. 

9. CAT BIRD. — About nine inches long. Dark slate color above, below 
a light slate color. Top of head and tail black. Feet and bill black. Nest in 
bushes, being roughly made. Eggs a greenish-blue. Eats insects and cater- 
pillars. It sings like the brown thrasher, and at times utters a cry some- 
thing like a cat. Is constantly moving about. Migratory. Valuable on ac- 
count of song and the destruction of insects. 

10. KING BIRD. — Smaller than the robin. Upper parts a grayish slate. 
Light slate color below. Small crest. Tail black with white tips. Nest on 
branches of trees. Egg a white with brown spots. Eats bugs, caterpillars 
and winged insects. Attacks crows and hawks. Seen about orchards or 
hedges. Migratory. Often miscalled Bee-martin. Beneficial to fruit grower. 

11. SCARLET TANAGER. — A little more than seven inches long. In 
spring, the male is a bright scarlet, with black wings and tail. Underneath wing 
feathers are a white. During the fall the male and female look very much 
alike, having an olive green hue above and the underneath a yellow. Nest 
on branches of trees. Blue eggs with brown spots. Makes nests in groves. 
Usually sings from top branches of a tree. 

12. BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO AND YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO.— 
Somewhat larger than the robin. Black-billed is gray above and below. Bill 
long. Skin about eye is red. A long tail. Yellow-billed is a bronze gray above 
and below. Lower mandible of bill is yellow. Outer tail feathers tipped with 
black. Long tail. Seldom comes out in open. Often called rain-crow. Eats 
caterpillars. Lay eggs in nest of other birds. Disappears noiselessly if ap- 
proached. 

13. MOURNING DOVE.— Grayish brown above. Reddish brov.n below. 
Upper part of head a greenish blue. Easily recognized by its low mellow notes. 
Nest poorly made in lower branches of small trees or on the ground. Eggs 
white and two or three in number. Nests in wooded tracts or grain fields. 
Gathers in flocks in early fall. Eats v% eed seeds, insects and small quantities 
of grain. Highly beneficial to farmers. Does but little injury. 

14. FLICKER. — Called yellow-hammer or golden winged woodpecker. 
Head and neck a gray, with red crescent across back of neck. Black crescent 
on breast. Above a bright brown with black. Below a cinnamon brown with 
black blotches. Yellow lining of wing« and ta-il. Nest in hollows of trees. 
Feeds upon the ground quite often. Migratory. 

15. RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD.— Male is a black. Shoulder a scarlet 
with an edge of yellow. Female a rusty black with less scarlet. Lives in 
swampy tracts or along small streams. Nests a-re fastened to bushes or 
slumps of weeds or grasses. Eggs a pale blue marked with black. Eats worms, 
weed seeds, insects and grains. Lives in flocks. Highly beneficial. 

16. AMERICAN GOLDFINCH.— Often called wild canary and yellow bird. 
Black crown, wings and tail. Remainder of covering a yellow. In v.-inter an 
olive brown. Nests in low bushes. Bluish whtie eggs. Nesting period in 
July. Often seen in thistle patches or by roads. Live principally upon weed 
seeds. Found in flocks. Of much value to the farmer. 

17. COW BIRD. — Male, black, with head, neck and brea-st a brown. 
Female, a dull slate color. Both are smaller than the other black birds. Has 
a conical beak. S?en among cattle in pasture. Lays eggs in nests of other 
birds. Eggs, white with brown spots. Eats weed and grain seeds. Congre- 
gates with other species of black birds. Beneficial. 



51 

18. BRONZED GRACKLE or COMMON BLACKBIRD.— Black with blue, 
purple and copper tints. Tail longer than wings. Yellow in eye. Builds nest 
in trees. Often carries tail rudder-wise. Ea-ts insects, weed seeds and growing 
grain. The flocks separate during hatching season, but gather together in early 
autumn. Does a slight damage to grov.ing corn. More than pays for all dam- 
age it does. 

19. SHARP-SHINNED HAWK and COOPER'S HAWK (Male.)— The Coop- 
er's hawk is much the larger. The upper parts are of a brown slate. Under 
parts lighter, the throat being white. Under parts barred with brown. Long 
tail. Nest in top of trees. White speckled eggs. In fields, orchards or wooods. 
Flies very swiftly. Eats mice, rabbits and chickens. The only species of 
haw'k that lives on poultry. All other species highly beneficial. 

20. SPARROW-HAWK ( Ma^le. )— About ten inches long. Upper parts a 
reddish brown, being barred with black. Under parts a yellowish white. Wing 
fea-thers a slatish hue. Makes nests in barns, roofs or a hollow tree. Eats 
insects and mice. When searching for prey in meadows it hovers above and 
then drops down. Should not be killed. 

21. RED-TAILED HAWK (Male.)— About twenty inches long. Often called 
hen-hawk. Upper parts brown, being mottled. Lower parts a light brown. 
Tail a red-brown. Eats insects, mice, rabbits and small birds, but seldom 
poultry. Makes nest in top of trees. Beneficial. 

22. MARSH HAWK. — Male bird is smaller than the female. Back wnngs 
and tail are of a grayish color. The tail has bars across it. The throat and 
breast a white gray. The lower parts a white, but mottled with a reddish 
brown. Long wings and tail. Lives in open. Flies low. Can often be seen 
turning a somersa-ult in the air. Nest in bunches of grass or in shrubbery 
patch. Eats moles, frogs, insects, mice, ground squirrels, lizards and small 
birds. Does not eat poultry, hence should not be killed. 

23. RED-SHOULDERED HAWK (Male.)— Upper parts a grayish brown, 
barred white. Under parts blotched with black. Lives in wooded tracts. 
Seldom visits poultry yard. A benefit to farmer. 

24. PRAIRIE HORNED LARK.— A little larger than the English sparrow. 
Lives in open fields. Permanent resident. Pinkish brown. Erect feathers 
on both sides of head. Throat a yellow. Breast has black blotch. Tail black. 
Under surface a pale white. Seen often in by-roads, grain fields, and meadows. 
Nests in meadows of pastures. Eats weed seeds and insects. 

25. BALTIMORE ORIOLE (:\Iale).— Head, throat, back and wings black. 
Wings have white spots. Rest of body an orange. Female a yellowish brow^n. 
Wings dark brown. Has a hang nest on end of limb. Nest made of string and 
pieces of cloth or pieces of inner bark. Eats worms, flies, ants and caterpillars. 
Noted for its song. 

26. RED-EYED VIREO.— About the size of an English sparrow. Upper 
parts an olive green. Crown a slate color. White just above eye. Above this 
is a black hue. The iris of eye is red. Under surface a white with a greenish 
yellow on sides. Lives among bushes and small trees. Sings at midday. 
Eats insects and worms. 

27. SONG SPARROW.— About the size of English sparrow. Reddish 
browm. Brown stripe on side of throat. Below is white. Black spot on breast. 
Tail a light brown. Nest on ground or in small bush. Raises two or three 
broods a year. Found in fields, in by-ways, or in patches of underbrush. 

28. HOUSE WREN. — About five inches long. Brown barred. Darker ex- 
cept on head. Wings finely barred. Light brown on under surface. Often has 
tail erect. Nest in boxes, openings in buildings or in hollow trees. Very 
domestic. Eggs are speckled. Eats worms and small insects. VaJuable to 
gardener and fruit grower. 

29. WOOD THRUSH.— Reddish brown on head and shoulders. Rear of 
back an olive brown. White beneath but spotted with dark brown spots. 
White eye ring. Rather domestic. Common in parks, orchards and gardens. 
Nest in low bushes. Lively singer. Lives principally upon insects. 

30. NIGHT HAWK.— Black and brown spots. Yellow spots on under sur- 



52 



face which is barred. Throat a white. Long wings. Large white spots no- 
ticeable only in flying. Small bill. Nest on logs or ground. Flies in flocks in 
late afternoon in summer. Eats insects that it catches on the wing. 

BIRD CALENDARS. — During the spring, vacation and fall a' bird calendar 
should be made . It may include any points that have been learned by obsei-- 
vation, as: 



Name 
Color 
Arrives 

Location of nest 
Material in nest 



American Goldfinch 

Bright Yellow 

May 

In small tree 

Grass and moss 



Food eaten Weed seeds 

Number of broodsOne 
Number of eggs Five or six 
Color of eggs Pa-le blue 
Migrates October 



BIRD MAPS. — A map should be drawn of the yard, garden and orchard 
of a- home or of the neighborhood of the school showing location of all the 
nests made. It may be indicated on the map as to whether the nest is in a 
bush, tree on the ground or in a prepared nest. Taking a census or survey of a 
neighborhood in this way makes anyone more familiar with bird life. 

BIRD FOOD CHART.— A simple outline may be kept of the food that the 
bird is seen to eat. In course of time, a complete chart can be made of 
twenty-five or thirty and much will be learned about the habits of the bird. 
A check may be placed after the name of each food that the bird is seen to 
eat. Where it eats a great deal two crosses may be made. 



Tame fruit Screech Owl 

Wild fruit 

Caterpillars X 

Grasshoppers X 

Ants .... 

Grain . ^ . 

Weed seeds .... 

Mice XX 

Worms .... 

Potato bug 

Cut w?;ms ... 

Bird eggs X 

Birds 



Robin Jaybird Bluebird Wren 



SPECIAL POINTS ABOUT A FEW COMMON BIRDS. 

KIND OF RESIDENTS. — Birds that stay in the same immediate neighbor- 
hood are called permanent residents. Six such birds near the fortieth parallel 
are: blue-jay, crow, red-headed woodpecker, downy woodpecker, flicker and 
horned lark. Some birds remain near the fortieth parallel during the winter 
but at the approach of spring they migrate toward the north. Such birds as 
these are, the ruby crowned kinglet, brown creeper, white throated sparrow 
and tit-mice. Again there are those that remain with us during the summer. 
These are called migratory or summer residents. The majority of our birds 
belong to this class. 

TREE-PROTECTORS. — Many birds are helpful in that they destroy many 
insects that injure either the tree or the fruit. Among these may be mentioned 
the flicker, hairy woodpecker, white-breasted nuthatch, kinglet, downy wood- 
pecker, red-headed woodpecker, chickadee, vireos, brown creeper, yellow-bellied 
sapsucker and cuckoo. 

BIRDS OF PREY. — In this class may be grouped the hawks and owls. 
They are usually solitary in habit, excepting during migration. They live 
principally upon mice, large insects, rabbits, birds, squirrels, eggs and poultry. 
There are only two members of the hawk family that invade the poultry 
yard. They are the sharp-shinned hawk and the Cooper's hawk. The marsh 
hawk, the red-tailed hawk, the red-shouldered hawk and the sparrow hawk 



53 

should not be blamed for the depredations of the first two mentioned hawks. 
The screech owl, and the short-eared owl are all highly beneficial. 

SOURCES OF MATERIAL. — Colored bird pictures may be obtained from 
Birds and Nature, Chicago, 111. (Price 2 cents apiece.) Any of the following 
magazines will be found helpful in the study of birds: 

Bird Lore, Harrisburg, Pa. 

Nature-Study Review, Chicago, 111. 

Birds and Nature, Chicago, 111. 
The Illinois Audubon Society, Lincoln Park, Chicago, 111., will be pleased- 
to send bird leaflets to any teacher. 

The bulletins mentioned below may be obtained free from the Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C: 
Common Birds — Bulletin 54. 

Relation between birds and insects — Bulletin 486. 
Economic value of Predaceous birds — Bulletin 474. 
Does it pay the farmer to ))rotect birds? — Bulletin 443. 
Migratory movement of birds — -Bulletin .54.5. 
Economic value of Boh White — Bulletin 300. 
How birds affect orchards — Bulletin 197. 
Food of nestling birds — Bulletin 194. 
The Blue-jay and its food — Bulletin 66. 
Our Grosbeaks — Bulletin 456. 
Among the bird books are: 
Chapman's Birds of Eastern North America. 
Merriam's Birds of Village and Field. 
Blanchan's Bird Neighbors. 
Lange's Our Native Birds. 
Reed's Our Birds. 



54 

THE FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. 

If an appreciation for the presence of trees is to be instilled in the pupils 
of the public schools there must of necessity be considerable attention paid 
to the planting and caring of trees. The trees aside from being of an economic 
value, also add much to the appearance of the landscape and at the same time 
afford a place for the nesting of nearly all species of birds. The element of 
shade is a- question that also enters into the consideration of the study. The 
planting of the seeds or the trees so that our descendants may enjoy the 
fruits of our labor is one of the highest motives that can grow out of the 
study of trees. There is something uplifting in seeing an old man plant a 
hard maple in preference to the rapidly growing soft maple. 

The study of trees can be carried on at all times of the year. The col- 
lecting and planting of such as acorns, maple seeds, walnuts, hazel nuts, linden 
seeds and box elder seeds may be carried on during the fall. Careful obser- 
vation should be made as to how the seeds are propagated. Many of the seeds 
of the hardier trees do not germinate until the second year. The seeds may be 
planted in either the spring or the fall. It is always best to plant the seeds 
very shallow — not more than two inches deep. It will also help the seed to 
germina-te if the seed plot is covered lightly with leaves or grass. A corner 
of a school ground is an excellent place to have a tree plot so that the school 
grounds or community could be furnished with the necessary young trees. 

During the study on trees much time should be spent in the discussion 
of the care of the school yard and home. It is not an uncommon thing to neg- 
lect a scar on a tree or a partially broken limb. In the collection of samples of 
wood there should not be the wanton destruction of small trees and the limbs 
of trees as is often done. A collection of leaves may be made during the 
late spring or the early fall. These will help in the identification of many 
species. Tree study to be successful must be principally bj' observation and 
not by breaking limbs of trees in an haphazard manner. 

Too much of this kind of work has already been done a« is evidenced by 
the number of imperfect trees. 

When the buds begin to appear in the early spring there should be a 
study of the flower bud, the leaf bud and the bark. It is also interesting to 
keep a calendar of the flowering and leafing of the trees. It may be as 
follows : 

Name. Time of leaves. Leaves fully developed. 

Elm. April 25. May 10. 

The culmination of the tree study should end on Arbor Day when a special 
exercise of some kind should be held. 

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Make drawings of leaves and trees. 

2. The following poems or prose selections refer to tree life: 

October's Party, Hiawatha's Sailing, The Crooked Fir Tree, The Brave 
Old Oak, Planting of Apple Tree, Rhoecus, The First Christmas Tree, 
Woodman Spare That Tree. 

3. Make a list of all the nuts common to Illinois. 

4. Describe the white oak telling where it is commonly found, shape, 
color of bark, seeds and shape of leaves. 

5. Make tree booklets. 

6. Draw a map of school district showing the location of trees. 

7. Make a- list of insects that infest the trees. 

8. Make a collection and then a study of the twigs of various trees. The 
color, buds, general shape, smoothness and the seeds. 

9. Learn to recognize the following trees (take into consideration the 
shape, bark and leaves) : 



55 

soft maple sassafras birch 
hard maple sycamore walnut 
Norway maple linden cotton wood 
box elder elm hickory 
white oak red oak red haw- 
beechnut hackberry chestnut 
pecan mulberry burr oak 
catalpa ash wild cherry 

Describe the following, telling some places where they should be planted: 

lilac honeysuckle ivy 

spirea barberry wistaria 

privet clematis grapevine 

Questions to be proposed and answered after observations have been 
made: 

1. What trees do not lose their leaves during the winter? 

2. Are the leaf scales covering the buds, sticky? For w'hat purpose? 

3. Do pecans grow in Illinois? 

4. Is coal formed from trees? 

5. What is the layer under the outer bark called? How does the tree 
get its food from the soil? 

6. How can you tell the age of a tree? 

7. Name a common tree that does its own pruning? 

8. Why is it necessary to dig the hole for planting a tree two or 
three times as large as seems necessary? 

9. Why is it better to transplant a tree in the early fall? 

10. What trees grow close to the smaller waterways? 

11. What are Forest reserves? 

12. What are some of the ways in which forests are destroyed? 

13. Does the absence of forests cause a decrease in the amount of rain- 
fall? 

14. In what ways are forests being preserved? 

FRUIT TREES. 

The successful growing of fruit trees is one of the most interesting and 
helpful studies in the nature study field. The results of Burbank, the spray- 
ing of trees, the grafting, the fruit pests, the care of the trees and the storing 
and marketing of the fruit are some practical illustrations of what the general 
field suggests. 

Some of the things that ought to be done in the study of the Apple: 
(Other fruit trees should also receive attention.) 

1. Make a list of the various fruit trees of the neighborhood. 

2. Draw a home plot showing the location of the fruit trees and follow 
this with a discussion as to where more trees can be set out. 

3. In orchards it is the best arrangement to set the trees of each row 
opposite the spaces of the next row. 

Draw a diagram showing that sixty-eight trees twenty feet apart can be 
set on a plot 160 feet square, no tree within ten feet of the edge of the plot. 

4. Apple trees (results to be gotten by observation). 

(1) Average height of the trees? 

(2) Color of the bark? 

(3) What is the arrangement of the branching? 

(4) How and where are the flowers located? 

(5) Compare the flower bud and stem until they are easily 

distinguished. 

5. Send to a nursery for their catalogue and make a study of the com- 
mon varieties of apples, such as Winesap, Red Astrachan, Northern Spy, Jona- 
than, Snow, Greening, Grimes Golden and Russet. 



56 

6. Make a collection of seeds and plant a few to show the process of 
germination. Other fruit seeds should be planted at the same time. 

7. PLANTING APPLE SEEDS.— The apples from the apple trees that 
have been raised from the seeds are usually very small and do not resemble 
the apples from the original tree. This may be avoided by grafting the sprout 
or young tree after it is a year or two old. This may de done by taking 
the stem buds and placing them on the stem of the tree that has been developed 
directly from the seed. (This phase of work will be the most interesting and 
vital of any of the work on the trees for the reason that it concerns, the prop- 
agation of trees for future generations. One stem bud will often produce a 
hundred or more during a summer. 

To do simple grafting it will be necessary to have a sharp knife, pieces 
of cloth and wax. The wax may be of equal parts of tallow, resin and beeswax. 

Four or five stems (scions) may be cut from the same tree or a scion 
from each of several trees may be used. There are several methods of graft- 
ing, but in this instance only two are mentioned — cleft graifting and 
the slanting cut grafting. The cleft grafting consists of splitting the 
stock, the stem on which the graft is to be fastened and then placing 
a thinned end of the graft stem into the slit. The other plan is to cut down 
obliquely across the graft stem and obliquely up the stock stem. The main 
thing in any plan of grafting is to unite the living pa-rts of the two stems. 
It is the layer lying next to the ba-rk that finally unites the two stems. This 
is called the cambium layer. After the stems have been united and covered 
with a thin cloth or hemp, the cloth should be given a thin coat of the wax. 
Grafting should be done at the first approach of spring. 

8. BUDDING. — Budding consists in cutting a small T-shaped slit in the 
tree and inserting just the stem bud into the opening. The bark should then 
be fastened back in its original form. Budding can be done more successfully 
on the old peach tree or on the yearling sprout than on the apple tree. 

9. PRUNING. — If the trees are carefully pruned they will have a better 
shape, and will produce a better api)le. They will also be less susceptible to 
decay. The pruning should be done a-t the close of the winter months. When 
large limbs are cut off they should be removed close to the body of the tree 
and the exposed surface given a thin coat of paint. 

10. APPLE AND APPLE TREE PESTS.— Among the common pests of 
the apple orchard are: 

Codling Moth Tent Caterpillar Locust 

Apple Tree Borers Canker Worms San Jose Scale. 

CODLING MOTH.— The Codling Moth lays the eggs at about the time the 
bloom is falling. The larvae or worm upon hatching eats its way into the 
apple, causing the apple to fall to the ground before ripening. The larvae then 
emerges from the apple and crawls up the tree and makes a cocoon. The moth 
comes from this cocoon. 

If the orchards are kept clean of all trash it will assist in lessening the 
number of cocoons. The spraying of the tree at the time of the falling of the 
bloom will be found very effective. The following mixture may be used: 

Copper Sulphate 3 lbs. 

Lime 3 lbs. 

Water 50 gallons. 

Paris Green 4 ounces. 

TENT CATERPILLAR.— The moth lays the eggs in the late summer. When 
spring approaches the larvae eat their way through the covering and begin to 
devour the leaves. As they reach full growth they leave the trees and spin 
the cocoons. By the first of July the moth appears and soon after the eggs 
are laid. 



The number of these pests may be greatly lessened by the burning of ihe 
nests. The spraying of the codling moth mixture also tends to eliminate them. 
Many birds, such as the chickadee, woodpecker, nuthatch and catbird feed upon 
both the larvae and the cocoons. 

CANKER-WORM. — The measuring worm or canker-worm, in the early 
summer burrow into the earth. In a few days they come forth as moths, the 
male with wings and the female wingless. The female crawls up the tree and 
deposits eggs. The larvae then soon appear. 

A band of tarred paper placed around the tree will prevent the female from 
crawling up the tree. The codling-moth spray may be also used. Nearly any 
of the common song birds feast upon the canker worm moth. 

SAN JOSE SCALE. — One of the difficult orchard pests to check is the 
San Jose scale. They are very minute and propagate very rapidly — often 
there are five generations in a year. The bark and the tree appear to have tiny 
gray specks on them. If the scale is unmolested the tree will often die after 
a fight of three or four years. 

The most simple treatment is to burn the infested trees, otherwise the 
entire orchard will become infested. 

TREE BULLETINS. 

Grafting Bulletin 408, Dept. or Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Forestry in Nature Study Bulletin 486, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Arbor Day Bulletin 96, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Tree Planting Bulletin 134, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Growing of Apples Bulletin 113, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Pruning Bulletin 181, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Spraying Bulletin 283, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Spraying Peaches Bulletin 440, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C, 

San Jose Scale Bulletin 124, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Pear Blight Bulletin 50, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Handling of Fruit Bulletin 387, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Diseases of Ornamental Trees. . Bulletin 463, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Enemies of Shade Trees Bulletin 99, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Lumber Supply Bulletin 2.5, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

How Birds Affect the Orchard. . . Bulletin Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Bitter Rot of Apples Bulletin 118, Agri. Ex. Station, Urbana, 111. 

Insects of Illinois Shade Trees.. Bulletin 115, Agri. Ex. Station, Urbana, 111. 

Apple Score Card Department of Horticulture, Purdue, Ind. 

Pruning Bulletin 30, Dept. of Horticulture, Purdue, Ind. 



58 

FUNGI. 

Fungi are plants of a low order. They do not contain the green coloring 
matter (chlorophyll) as do most plants and, therefore, are compelled to be 
dependent upon other organisms for food. They bear no flowers, and conse- 
quently produce no seeds. Instead of seeds they produce little bodies called 
spores, which answer the same purpose. 

Mushrooms, puff balls, molds, rusts, blights, mildew, rot, sca^bs, smuts, 
etc., belong to the fungi. These plants obtain their food in two ways, viz.: 
from living animals and plants, and from dead bodies or organic waste 
products. The fungus that attacks living bodies is called parasite, and the 
body which it attacks is called the host. The plant which attacks dead bodies 
or obtains its food from organic waste products is called a saprophyte. 

THE MUSHROOM— A TYPE STUDY. 

The rusts, puff-balls and mushrooms represent the most highly special- 
ized and extensive group of fungi. The mushroom, being the easiest to 
observe on account of its size and abundance, is chosen for the type study. 

Have the children bring in some mushrooms. The common meadow 
mushroom is abundant in the fall. If possible it would be advisable to buy 
some of thespawn and raise a crop in the school room. Bulletin .5o, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture gives full directions for cultivating this fungus. 
Mushrooms are found in the woods, around stumps and barns, in the 
meadows and fields, and on trees or wherever there is decaying organic 
matter. The stem or stalk-like part is called the stipe and the expanded 
umbrella-like part the pileus. The leaf-like plates found on the under side 
of the pileus are called the giUs. The surface of the gills is covered by 
a membranous layer bearing club-shaped cells from the ends of which project 
from two to four delicate branches each bearing a^ minute spore at its tip. 
When the gills are ripe these spores shower down in great abundance, and 
germinate, producing new plants. 

Attached to the end of the stipe are small whitish threads which branch 
extensively through the sub-stratum of decaying organic matter upon which 
the fungus grows. These threads make up the vii/celium and are called 
spaum by some growers. The mycelium is the real vegetative body of 
the plant upon which buttons are produced which develop into the umbrella- 
like plants commonly regarded as mushrooms, but which are only the fruit 
or reproductive organs. 

An exact print of the under side of the top (pileus) of a mushroom may 
be obtained by breaking the stem off and laying the top gills downward, on 
a piece of clean white paper, leaving it for from twelve to twenty-four hours. 

An examination of the print thus made will show an exact representation 
of the under side of the pileus. By rubbing the fingers over this print the 
discharged spores in the form of a fine powder, may be felt. 

MUSHROOMS, EDIBLE AND POISONOUS. 

The popular classification, which limits mushrooms to a certain species 
and classes all others as toadstools ,is erroneous. All toadstools are mush- 
rooms and all mushrooms are toadstools. The real distinction is between puff- 
balls and mushrooms. Puff-balls differ from mushrooms in that they have 
the spores enclosed until they are ripe, while mushrooms have the spore- 
bearing surface exposed. 

The color of the spores is an important aid in distinguishing the edible 
type from the poisonous. The latter generally have white spores while the 
favorite edible kinds have dark purple brown spores which can be clearly 
distinguished in the print mentioned elsewhere. 

FUNGOUS DISEASES. 

Plants have diseases just as animals do. Most of these diseases are 
caused by fungi the spores of which float around through the air, and settle 



59 

on (he healthy plii-nt. Here they grow and cause much injury to the plant. 
Indeed, if they are not destroyed they may kill the plant or seriously impair 
its usefulness. The diseases caused by spores are called fungous diseases. 
The most common forms are potato scab, peach leaf 'curl, fruit rot, fire blight 
of the pear and apple, S7niit in corn, black knot in plum, potato blight, and 
apple scab. Mildew and mold belong also to the fungus diseases that affect 
plants. 

HOW PLANT DISEASES SPREAD. 

1. The spores of the, fungi are very light and are easily carried 
from one plant to another by insects, wind or water. They fall upon the 
surface of plants and work their way into the tissues through wounds, cracks 
or stomata. 

2. The soil in new fields is often infected by tools that have been used 
ill infected soils or by diseased plants which have been transferred from 
infected soil. 

3. Tools that have been used to cut off diseased portions of plants often 
retain some of the spores on their surfaces and, when used on healthy tissues, 
deposit them where they begin to grow immediately. 

4. When oats infected with smut are threshed the spores of the fungus 
arise in a cloud and often settle on the threshed grain. If any of this grain 
is planted the spores soon develop in the growing plant. In this way a 
whole field is often ruined at a cost of many dollars to the farmer. 

5. Many of the diseases are contagious. This is especially true of the 
rots. Healthy fruit may become infected by coming in contact with diseased 
fruit. This may be clearly shov/n by putting a rotten apple or potato in a 
box or barrel with some sound ones. In a very short time the good ones 
will begin to decay. 

HOW PLANT DISEASES MAY BE PREVENTED. 

Fungous diseases can seldom be cured, therefore, they must be pre- 
vented. It is very important that the ways of preventing these diseases 
should be given careful study. Some of the genera-l means of prevention are 
given below: 

r., BURNING. — Since plant diseases spread very rapidly, * it follows 
diseased fruit, leaves, limbs or vines should be destroyed. These parts are 
often cut off and thrown into the fence corners, or the brush heap where 
they remain a menace to every healthy plant. Instead of this, a^Il the affected 
parts should be burned, which is a very effective means of destroying 
disease. 

2. ROTATION OF CROPS.— It is a w^ell known fact that in most in- 
stances diseases confine themselves to only one or two kinds of plants. By 
growing some other kinds of plants on the land for a year or two the spores 
which have been left in the ground will die and the chances of injury from 
these diseases will be materially lessened. 

3. SELECTION OF VARIETIES.— It has been found that some varieties 
of plants are able to resist disease much better than others. By a careful 
selection of the most resistant varieties, farmers are able to reduce their 
losses to a great extent. 

4. SPRAYING. — By spraying the foliage of plants with a poisonous 
solution the spores may often be prevented from developing. A preparation 
used for this purpose is called a fungicide. Bordeaux mixture and lime- 
sulphur are the principal fungicides. 

Spraying is a common remedy for the following na-med diseases. Scab 
of apples, pears and peaches, peach leaf curl, potato blight and rot. 



60 

BORDEAUX MIXTURE. 

5 lbs. copper sulphate (bluestone). 
5 lbs. unslacked lime. 
50 gal. water. 

Dissolve thoroughly the copper sulphate in 25 gallons water. Slack the 
lime and add 25 gallons to it. When the lime and copper sulphate are thor- 
oughly dissolved, mix them and strain through a coarse cloth into a spray 
pump, barrel or tank. Always use wooden vessels. 

A weaker mixture for trees in foliage may be made by using 2% lbs. 
each of lime and copper sulphate with the amount of waiter called for in the 
above recipes. 

An excellent table containing directions for spraying is given in the 
Appendix of "Agriculture for Beginners," published by Ginn & Company. 

5. COATING CUT SURFACES.— When big limbs are pruned off decay 
often sets in, caused by the spores entering the fresh wounds. 

This decay may be prevented by covering the cut surface with a coating 
of paint, lar, wax or some other substance to prevent the spores from enter- 
ing and germinating. Valuable trees are often lost if this precaution is 
not taken. 

6. PLANTING CLEAN, HEALTHY SEED.— -Vigorous seeds produce 
strong pla-nts that are able to resist disease more effectively than weak 
plants. Before seeds are planted they should be dipped for a few minutes 
in a solution of formaldehyde. Especially should this be done if there is any 
danger that the seeds are infected with spores of fungi. This treatment 
will kill the spores thereby preventing the disease from developing in the 
young plants. 

FORMALDEHYDE SOLUTION. 

1 pint formaldehyde (40 per cent). 
40 gallons water. 

Put the seed in a- 'gunny sack" and soak in this solution for about ten 
minutes. Then spread out to dry. 

TREATMENT OF SPECIAL PLANT DISEASES. 

1. OATS AND WHEAT SMUTS.— It is very important that seed grain 
should be free from smut. If it is not the spores will develop with the 
sprouting seed and will attack the young plant, causing the blackened heaids 
of grain which are a familiar sight in many oats and wheat fields and which 
cause the farmer a loss of millions of dollars every year. This loss can be 
prevented largely by soaking the seed in the formaldehyde (formalin) solu- 
tion directions for the making of which are given in the preceding section. 

It would be well to have one of the pupils to bring a peck of oats to 
school and treat them with this solution. The spores that are on the oats 
will be killed and the crop coming from this seed will be free from smut. 
No doubt some of the farmer boys will be glad to try this experiment in 
the spring and sow the seed in some place where the result of the treat- 
ment can be watched. 

2. CORN SMUT. — Corn smut is a parasitic fungus that develops among 
the growing tissues of the kernels of Indian corn. It causes the kernels 
to swell and finally destroys the plant cells, developing in their place large 
numbers of tiny blackish spores. These spores being very light are readily 
carried from place to place by the wind or running water. Each of these 
spores will germinate under favorable conditions, producing secondary spores, 
which will penetrate the tissues of young corn plants thus completing the 
life cycle. 

To prevent this disease it is necessary to destroy all infected plants 
thus checking the dispersal of the spores. Care should be taken that no smut- 
ted ears are left in fhe fields or gardens. Rotation of crops is another way 
by which corn smut may be fought. 



61 

3. THE POTATO SCAB. — Potato scab lessens the yield of potatoes and 
decreases the selling price. Scabby potatoes used for seed will produce 
scabby potatoes. This disease can be prevented in a large measure by 
soaking the seed potatoes in the formaldehyde solution for about two hours. 
Potatoes treated in this way should not be eaten nor fed to stock. 

4. POTATO BLIGHT. — The blight is another serious disease of the 
potato that is quite different from the scab a^nd which requires a different 
treatment. This disease is caused by a fungus which attacks the leaves 
causing them to turn yellow and dry up. There are two kinds of potato 
blight known as Early Blight and Late Blight. The Ea-rly Blight does not 
usually attack the tubers but it decreases the yield materially. The Late 
Blight is much more serious since it causes the decay of the tubers as welt 
as the death of the leaves and stems. It is ca-used by a fungus known as the 
Downy Mildew the spores of which are carried by the wind and find lodg- 
ment on the surface of the potato leaves. Moisture will cause these spores 
to germinate and the little filaments thus produced find entrance into the leaf 
through some of its many open breathing pores. There they begin to grow 
very ra-pidly sending little threads in all directions. 

After penetrating through all the tissues of the leaf these little threads 
(mycelium) extend down the stem to the tuber causing it to rot. 

Millions of tiny summer spores are produced on the tips of branches which 
the mycelium in the lea-ves sends to the surface. These spores mature 
quickly and are readily carried away by the wind. In this way the Downy 
IMildew of the potato is spread. 

In some cases this disease is so bad that the crop is entirely destroyed. 

To prevent blight the seed should be rolled in sulphur, and when the 
vines appear above ground they should be sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture. 
Resistant varieties should be selected and crop rotation practiced. 

It is well to remember that (1) potatoes should never be planted in a 
field where the preceding crop was affected by this disease, (2) potatoes 
grown in a field where the disease was present should never be used for seed. 

Downy Mildew of the Tomato, of Lima Beans, of the Grape, of the 
Onion, etc., ha^ve about the same life history and similar means of prevention 
are employed. 

6. THE BLACK KNOT.— This is a disease which attacks the branches 
of the plum and cherry tree. The knots are caused by a parasitic fungus 
which produce a large number of spores <luring warm weather. These 
spores are easily blown al)out and when they fall on green and tender bark 
they are likely to germinate causing the knotty growths which gradually 
enlarge and extend themselves. When this growth reaches entirely around 
the branch, the part beyond soon dies. 

Since this is a contagious disease, it follows that all diseased branches 
should be cut out and burned each year. This should be done sometime in 
the fall or winter, not later than January. Spraying with a good fungicide will 
also help to control this disease. 

THE RUSTS. 

The rusts are destructive fungi th.at attack nearly all seed plants. Those 
that attack the cereals are of most importance. In the United Stales alone 
wheat rust causes a yearly loss of millions of dollars. For many years scien- 
tists have been investigating the cause of this disease and the means of destroy- 
ing ir, but, as yet, no remedy for it has been discovered. The life history of 
some of the rusts is very interesting and complex. 

The mycelium of rust burrows among the tissues of young, infected plants, 
sending out sporophores, which reach the surface about harvest time. A red- 
dish spore called the summer spore, or uredospore, is produced at the tip of 
each sporophore, from the appearance of which the disease gets its name. 
These summer spores, falling upon other plants, germinate in a few hours, 
producing new mycelia. which penetrate the host plant. Formerly this was 
thought to complete the life cycle of this fungus and the name red rust was 
applied to it. However, it is now known to be only a phase in the life history 



62 

of the plant. The summer spores are scattered through the field, causing the 
disease to spread very rapidly. It is in this stage, therefore, that the greatest 
damage is done by the rust fungus. 

The winter spores of rust, called teleutospores (completed spores), are 
produced in the late summer. They have very heavy walls and are two-celled. 
They form black lines and dots on the stubble and remaining wheat stalks and 
are produced by the same mycelium that bore the uredospores, although it was 
thought formerly to be caused by a different fungus. It is now known to be only 
another phase in the life cycle of this interesting plant. It is in this stage that 
the fungus persists through the winter. 

In the early spring the winterspores (teleutospores) begin to germinate, 
each cell sending out a short, stout thread called a germ tube, which is divided 
into four cells by means of cross walls. Each cell sends out a little branch on 
the tip of which is developed a single small spore called a sporidiuni. These 
are named Early Spring Spores. And now comes a most curious circum- 
stance in the life history of wheat rust. 

When these early spring spores ripen they are scattered by the wind and 
those falling on barberry bushes germina-te immediately, producing mycelia, 
which enter and spread through the leaves, sending to the surface of the leaf 
groups of sporophores that produce orange-colored pustules, called "cluster 
cups." These eluster cups or Late Spring Spores, when ripe, find lodgment on 
wheat or other grains where they germinate rapidly, forming new mycelia, 
which later produce the simnmer Spores (uredospores) thus completing the life 
cycle. 

Coulter, in his excellent treatise, "A Text Book of Botany", states that 
since the barberry is not widely enough distributed in the United States to 
play so important a part in the life history of the rusts, other plants have 
been found to be used as hosts for the "cluster cup" stage. Many authorities 
also hold that this fungus can live from year to year without going through 
the "cluster cup" stage, uredospores living through the winter in sufficient 
number to start the disease on the grains in the following spring. 

Attention is called to the fact that, in the "cluster cup" stage of the life 
history of rust, it is parasitic, having chosen an entirely different host which 
has no relation to wheat. 

The only progress made in the prevention of this disease has been the 
discovery of resistant varieties of wheat and oats. 

A SUMMARY OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF WHEAT RUST. 

1. Early Spring Spores. 

a. Produced by teleutospores. 

b. Infect barberry leaves. 

2. Late Spring or "Cluster Cup" Spores. 

c. Spores on barberry infect wheat, etc. 

3. Summer Spores or Uredospores. 

d. Infect other wheat plants. 

4. Winter Spores or teleutospores. 

e. Produce Early Spring Spores. 

OTHER RUSTS. 
The cedar apple is another rust which is well known. We are all familiar 
with the little swellings that appear along the twigs of cedar trees. The spores 
from these swellings are blown about by the wind in the spring and any that 
fall on apple trees soon germinate and infect the apples. Apple rust is checked 
in a measure by destroying the cedar trees and spraying the apple trees with a 
good fungicide. 

Other rusts that are common in most neighborhoods are: 

Aspar?2;us Rvst Bean Rust 

Corn Rust Clover Rust 

Plum Rust ' Beet Rust 

Hollyhock Rust Raspberry rust 



63 

MOLDS. 

Mold frequently appears on leather articles which have been left in a dark, 
-warm place, in a dampi condition, upon meat, lemons, cheese, etc. The common 
bread mold is most abundant around our homes. It will soon develop on a piece 
of bread which has been moistened and placed under a cover. Mold is found 
frequently on the top of canned fruit. 

That mold is a plant which will reproduce itself very rapidly may be 
shown by the following interesting experiment. Dip a toothpick or end of a 
match in the mold which forms on bread or a lemon and draw it across a piece 
of moistened bread. Then put the bread in a damp place for a few days and 
watch the results. You will find that the same kind of mold you planted will 
grow on the bread, and only in the path of the toothpick or match, unless some 
of the light spores were blown about when you made your planting.. The 
pupils will like to perform this experiment by making their initials on the 
moistened bread with the toothpick, and watching the letter become outlined in 
the rapidly developing mold. To get the best results, one should have a small 
magnifying glass or microscope. 

Another experiment is easily performed by pouring boiling water over a 
piece of dry bread and placing over it a glass tumbler which has just been 
sterilized with boiling water. Then soak a piece of the same kind of bread 
in cold water and turn over it a cold tumbler. Watch for results and tell what 
this experiment^ has taught you. 

By planting the spores on a piece of bread which has been soaked in cold 
water which contains a small amount of formalin or formaldehyde, one may 
learn that formalin or formaldehyde will kill spores as well as the hot water. 

EXERCISES AND REVIEW QUESTIONS: 

1. Why does canned fruit mold? How may it be prevented? 

2. How do the fungi differ from other plants? 

3. Why should not scabby and mildewed weeds and bushes be left in or 
around grain fields? , 

4. What are the objections, if any, to leaving grain stalks standing in 
the fence corners or along the roadside? 

5. Why should cedar trees not be allowed to grow near an apple orchard? 

6. What dispostiou should be made of diseased plants? 

7. What objection are there to leaving diseased fruits hanging on the trees? 

8. Why should decayed fiuit or vegetables be discarded from crates or bins? 

9. Draw a mushroom and label its parts. 

10. How much damage is done by oats smut in your neighborhood? 

11. Is corn smut more injurious to field corn or sweet corn in your 
neighborhood. 

12. Make a list of the plant diseases tha^t you know to occur in your locality 
and the remedies that are used for each. 

13. Write a brief account of your observations upon some of these diseases. 
This outline may be used: 

(1) Name of disease. 

(2 ) Its abundance. 

(3) Name of host plants affected, and part of host affected. 

(4) Amount of damage. 

(5) Appearance of diseased leaves or fruit. 

(6) How it persists through the winter. 

(7) Preventive measures. 

Your account may be illustrated by sketches showing the appearance of 
the disease. 

14. Make a collection of some leaves or stalks that are diseased, press 
them and mount them on pages in your booklet. The name, date and locality 
should be printed on each sheet. 



64 
15. Pill out the following form as you study specimens of diseased plants: 



Name of Disease. Plant Affected. Remedy. 



16. Compare a field of potatoes that has been sprayed, with a field that 
has not. If possible find out the yield and the selling price in each case and 
compute the loss or gain on each. 

FUNGI THAT ATTACKS INSECTS. 

By close observation in the autumn you will find dead flies sticking to the 
window panes or other objects, encircled with a line of white dots and with 
their bodies swollen beyond all proportions. These flies have been killed by a 
parasitic fungus very similar to those that attack the higher plants. By an 
examination of one of these flies you will discover that the body is filled with 
a network of fine whitish threads, and that the white dots are the spores which 
these threads have thrown out. The disease spreads readily to living flies by 
means of these spores. 

Chinch bugs, plant lice, caterpillars and grasshoppers are often attacked 
and killed by fungi. Scientists are now experimenting with the fungus that 
occurs in chinch bugs in the hope that they may be able to discover a remedy 
that will check the ravages of that pest. 

You should find and bring into the schoolroom bodies of caterpillars 
that have been killed by a fungous disease. Care should be taken to distin- 
guish between caterpillars that have been killed by a fungus and those that 
have been attacked by the insect parasite known as the ichneumon fly. For 
a description of the latter see a* good work on zoology. 

Para-sitic fungi also prove very destructive to the white fly which is in- 
jurious to many kinds of trees. Attempts to spread this disease artiflcially 
are made by washing the spores from dead infected insects into water and 
iising the water as a spray on infested plants. 

The fungi that attack insects can be said to be friends to mankind, 
inasmuch as their ravages are confined principally to injurious insects. 

Look carefully for any dead flies, chinch bugs, caterpillars and grass- 
hoppers and when you find them place them in a glass a<nd add a few drops 
of water. Watch them daily for the development of spores. 

Try the experiment of spreading these diseases. In addition to the 
method already described leaves on which have been placed some dead in- 
sects may be put where living insects will come into contact with them. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Farm Friends and Farm Foes — Weed. 
A Text Book of Botany — Coulter. 
Botany — L. H. Bailey. 
Practical Botany — Bergen & Caldwell. 
Beginnings in Agriculture — Mann. 
One Hundred Lessons in Agriculture — Nolan. 
Elementary Agriculture — Hatch & Haselwood. 
Botany All the Year Round — Andrews. 
Agriculture for Beginners— Burkett, Stevens & Hill. 

Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture or Congress- 
man — Free Bulletins, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



65 

No. 

38. Spraying for Fruit Diseases. 

75. The Grain Smuts: Cause and Prevention. 

91. Potato Diseases and Their Treatment. 
146. Insecticides and Fungicides. 

16. Cereal Rusts of the United States. 

53. How to Grow Mushrooms. 
Year Book — 1897 — Some Edible and Poisonous Fungi. 
243. Fungicides. 

283. Spraying for Apple Diseases. 
Text Book of Plant Diseases — Massee. 
Elements of Agriculture — Warren. 
First Principles of Agriculture — Goff & Mayne. 
Fungous Diseases of Plants — Duggar. 

Peach Mildew — Bulletin 107, Colorado Experiment Station. 
Black Knot — Bulletin 81, Cornell University Agriculture Experiment Sta- 
tion. 

The Bitter Rot of Apples— Bulletin 44, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture. 

PLANT SOCIETIES. 

The conditions for plant life are so varied that plants have become 
adapted to different environments; i. e., they have become grouped accord- 
ing to the condition most favorable for their growth. These groups or sets 
of plants living together under similaT conditions are called plant societies 
or associations. 

In order that the term association or society may be better understood 
we may take for an example a forest where conditions are favorable to the 
growth of certain trees, or a meadow where the conditions favor certain 
grasses. 

The plant life of the forest and the meadow are good examples of 
Societies. Trees and grasses are the type plants but many others which 
the same conditions favor, grow with them. 

Farmers take advantage of plant societies in planning their crops. 
They have discovered that timothy and clover, corn and pumpkins, etc., are 
close companions and will grow together in the same field. 

Water and the temperature of the air and" soil are the most important 
factors in determining plant societies. 

THE GREAT GROUPS OF SOCIETIES. 

For convenience the great societies of the plant world are associated 
chiefly with the water supply. 
They are as follows: 

(1) Hydrophytes. — Plants that grow in water or bogs, such as water- 
lilies, pond-weeds, cat-tails, bulrushes and mangrooves. 

(2) Xerophytes. — Plants with a scanty water supply comprising the 
vegetation of sand-regions and deserts. Among these are the mosses, lichens, 
cacti, pines, etc. 

(3) Mesophytes.— The plants of this group thrive best with a moderate 
water supply. They comprise the vegetation of the intermediate regions. 

The grasses and flowering plants of the meadows, deciduous trees, 
and all th' common vegetation of the temperate regions are classed in this 
group. 

In addition to these three groups some authorities give two others: 
namely, 

(4) Trophophytes'.—Plants which are hydrophytes during part of the 
year and xerophytes during another part. 

(5) Halophytes. or salt loving plants. These flourish on the seashore 
and in salt-areas. 



66 

ADAPTATION OF PLANTS. 

Plants usually grow in regions where the soil and clima'te are favorable 
to them. Vegetation of the arctic regions would not flourish in the tropics, 
and (hat of the tropical regions would be destroyed in a short time by the 
cold climate of the arctic regions. However, important exceptions to this 
rule are given. It is now recognized that numerous plants exist under con- 
ditions which are unfavorable to their growth, not on account of the unfav- 
orable conditions but because these conditions are severe enough to prevent 
the development of other plants which would crowd or overshadow them. 

1. What is a plant society? 

2. What societies are most abundant where you live? 

3. Visit a field and make a special study of the vegetation. Count the 
kinds of plants it contains and estimate the relative abundance of each. 
Collect specimens of the different kinds of plants and learn their names. 

4. In the same way make a study of a forest, a roadside, a fence row, 
a pasture, a barnyard, etc. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

1. Practical Botany — Bergen & Caldwell. 

2. A Text Book of Botany— Coulter. 

3. Botany — Bailey. 

4. Elements of Botany — Bergen. 

5. Beginnings in Agriculture — Mann. 



POTATO. 

INTRODUCTION. — A study of the potato may begin by having a dis- 
cussion on the raising of potatoes in the immediate neighborhood. In con- 
nection with this some of the interesting facts about the potato and the grow- 
ing of the crop may be brought out. Below are some of the general facts 
concerning the potato. 

1. The potato wa-s found in Peru, South America, by the Spanish. 

2. It is the common food of Americans. 

3. More than 300,000,000 bushels are produced annually. 

4. Colorado, Michigan and Minnesota are potato producing states. Illi- 
nois ranks about fifth or sixth. 

.5. The potato scab may be lessened by treating the seed potatoes with 
the formalin solution. A pint of formalin should be mixed with 30 gallons 
of water and sprinkled over the potatoes. After this is done the potato heap 
should be covered with old carpets or other heavy cloths and left for a day. 
The seed may then be cut and planted. 

IS IT A SEED? — By comparing the potato with the seeds of the pea, 
bean, corn and clover and tracing the growth it is easily discovered that 
the potato is not really a seed. In comparing the potato with the stems of 
certain plants it will be seen tha^t the potato is a stem, and that the eyes of 
the potatoes are small buds. The potato has a stem end and a bud end. 
The bud end is where the potato was fastened to the root of the plant. There 
are a great number of eyes near the bud end. The botanist calls these under- 
ground stems, tubers. 

THE TYPE. — To be a good type, a potato must be regular in shape, 
about four inches long, two or three inches wide and weighing about % of 
a pound. The eyes should be shallow otherwise there is considerable waste 
in preparing for cooking. Among the interior qualities that may be men- 
tioned are. a good flavor, mealiness, and fineness of texture. Much can be 
done in getting a better type by a careful selection of the tubers at the 
harvest time, but the best manner of the selection of seed is to take the seed 
from the hills that produce a good quantity and a good quality. 

STARCH. — By scraping finely a potato and placing it in a partly filled 
cup of water a starchy substance is formed in a few hours. If the water is 
poured off and warm water is placed upon the residue a paste similar to 
common starch is formed. Another simple test to determine the presence of 
starch is by pouring a few drops of a mixture of iodine and water upon the 
soaked part of the potato. There should be two parts of water and one part 
of iodine in the mixture used. The iodine will change the color of the starch 
to a blue. 

PREPARING THE SEED AND PLANTING.— Two eyes on a portion of 
the tuber used for seed is better tha-n just one eye. The plan of using the 
small potatoes for planting will not get the best results. Fall plowing is 
often a good plan to follow in preparing the seed bed although clover sod 
under ordinary conditions would make a typical bed. Usually early plant- 
ing is preferable to the late planting. 

HARVESTING. — Potatoes should be dug as soon as they have matured. 
After they have been thoroughly dried they should be placed in a dry. cool, 
dark cellar. 

THINGS TO BE DONE. — Many experiments may be carried on at the home 
during vacation and reported upon at school, during the year. Just below are 
found questions and suggestions following each question. 

1. Does the planting of small potatoes have any effect upon the yield? 
This may be determined by planting a row of the smaller pieces or smaller 
potatoes and the remainder of the field in well selected seed. Each row 
should receive the same cultivation. 

2. Which is the better shallow or deep planting? Plant a row covering 
the potatoes to a depfh of an inch, a^nother row three inches deep and still 
another row six inches deep. Use the same grade of seed and the same 
manner of cultivation. 



68 

3. Which will make the better yield, the bud end or the stem end of 
the potato? Place the eyes of the stem end in one row and the eyes of 
the bud end in the other row. 

4. Which is the better, level or ridged cultivation? Keep one part of 
a plot level and an adjoining part the rows well ridged. If both parts of the 
field are given the same cultivation it may be determined which is the better 
plan. 

5. How destroy the potato bug? Place one pound of Paris green and 
one pound of lime to a barrel of water. Use as a spray in the early morning. 

6. How does heat affect the stored potato? Weigh four potatoes and 
place them in a warm room. Two weeks later weigh again. | Do the same 
for potatoes placed in a cool room. 

7. How learn varieties of the potato? Pupils should bring the varieties 
they raise to school. A comparison and a study of the kinds will result in a. 
more definite knowledge of the types. 

8. How produce a new variety of the potato? Secure a potato ball that 
is produced by the bloom and plant it. It should be planted in a hot-bed, and 
then transplanted to the field. The potatoes the first year will be very small, 
but they should be saved and planted the next year. Quite often a new 
variety of a potato will be the result of the second year crop. 

FREE BULLETINS. 

Potato Growing Bulletin 35, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Potato Diseases Bulletin 91, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Potatoes as a Truck Crop ..... .Bulletin 407, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Potatoes and Corn Normal University, Normal, Illlinois. 



69 

INSECTS. 

The thing of importance in the study of insect life is the life history. 
From this life story will arise many factors that need special attention. For 
convenience, insects can be divided into two general classes, those that are 
beneficial and those that are destructive. Many insects are beneficial, such 
as the honey bee, bumble-bee, ichneumon fly, ladybugs and dragon files. The 
helpfulness of the first two mentioned lies principally in the fact tha-t they 
scatter pollen, while the three latter ones live upon some of the Insect pests. 

It will assist considerably in becoming familiar with the various insects 
if a collection is made. Great care should be used in capturing and prepar- 
ing the insect, otherwise the work is of little importance. A careful study 
should be made of the life histories of such insects as the fly, mosquito, 
canker worm, grasshopper, ants, honey-bee. Practical and scientific methods 
of combating the many pests should receive much attention. Blow are brief 
life histories of two common insects. 

PEACH TREE BORER. — The worst enemy that the peach tree has to 
contend with is the borer, that can be distinguished at quite a distance by 
the broad yellow band across the abdomen in the moth stage. The moths 
resemble a great deal the common bluish wasps, but in their flight there is 
a marked difference in the movements; the wasp being the more rapid of the 
two. 

Through the months of June, July and August the moths come front 
their cocoons and fly a-bout through the orchard, depositing the eggs usually 
on the trunks of the peach or plum trees, and in most instances within a few 
inches of the ground. The eggs, of course, are very minute and are nearly the 
color of the bark, being located in tiny crevices or on a decayed part of the 
outer bark. They are fastened to the bark by a sticky subetance which does 
not allow them to fall to the ground. An individual often lays 600 eggs, 
being scattered about over the trunks of three or four trees. After the 
hatching of the borer he immediately enters a slit in the outer bark and soon 
bores his way to the inner bark, where he may remain for several months, 
living upon the nutritious sap. After a period of at least four or five months 
the borer appears again upon the surface of the trunk, making his cocoon, in 
which he sleeps only two or three weeks, coming forth in the fully developed 
moth. These moths do not flit about in the early morning or late evening, 
as do many moths, but spend their moth period in flying a-bout among the 
blossoms, flowers or among the leaves of the trees. 

As one moth may lay 500 or 600 eggs, it is readily seen that the borers 
may soon girdle a tree and thus kill it. In any event they lessen considerably 
the life of the tree and the ability of the tree to bear. It is not an uncommon 
thing for infested trees to be the source of the infection of an entire orchard 
and virtually the ultimate cause of its destruction. 

It is comparatively an easy matter to determine the presence of this 
effective larvae, as there is always an exuding gummy substance at the 
entrance made by the borer. The borer may be captured by digging into 
the bark with a knife. This is a very simple plan, and in a small orchard 
the borers may soon be destroyed. If such a method is used it is necessary 
to visit the trees four or five times during the year and destroy all borers 
that have left any traces at all. For the sake of the better trees it is often 
advisable to chop down an old tree if it is badly infested, and in this way 
destroy many borers that would soon become moths. Sprays are often used, 
but the most effective procedure is to dig out the individual borers. The 
number of borers may be considerably lessened in any orchard if such birds 
as the martin, flycatcher, kingbirds and nuthatch are given the slightest pro- 
tection from the cat. An afternoon's observation of the flycatcher will prove 
to the most skeptical that his principal diet consists of many species of 
moths. The common barn swallow and the purple martin are often seen 
spending much time in a peach orchard where there is an abundance of peach 
tree borers. 

As the results of the borer, if left alone, is the killing of the tree, it 
behooves the owner to assist the tree in overcoming the large wounds. The 



70 

peaeh tree seems to be able to cause all small wounds to heal quickly, but not 
so with the larger wounds that have been caused by severa-l borers. Aside 
from killing the borers singly, there should be some special attention given 
to the exposed heart of the tree. This may be done by banding the tree with 
a cloth or by using wax. In this way the tree is helped in starting a new 
growth which eventually may heal the wound and prevent further decay. 
With just a little attention the tree's life may be prolonged twelve or fifteen 
years, and during all this time be a bearing tree. 

THE CABBAGE WORM.— There is a story to the effect that the common 
cabbage worm was brought from Engla-nd to the United States about fifty 
years ago, and in that time it has spread to all parts of North America that 
are suitable for insect life. The principal factor in causing the rapid spread 
of this harmless looking butterfly is that there are three or four generations 
during a summer. It is seen from May to October flying about among 
the cabbage or kindred vegetation depositing its eggs. The butterfly or 
moth is white with dark spots on the fore wings, the male being of a 
slightly darker hue than the female. 

This wonderfully prolific insect passes the winter in the pupa state in 
the soil or in heaps of straw or trash. After changing to the butterfly form 
in early spring it soon deposits eggs on vegetation belonging to the cabbage 
family. The larvae are a light green and eat nearly continuously for a week 
or ten days, when they make a cocoon, thus ending the cycle. In a few days 
the life history is begun again and it may be that five generations are pro- 
duced in a single season. 

It is a law of nature that each form of animal life is in constant struggle 
with some other form of a-nimal life. This law of the survival of the fittest 
is well demonstrated in the case of the cabbage worm. There is a small 
larvae that enters the body of the cabbage larvae and soon kills it. On the 
leaves of nearly any cabba-ge plant may be seen tiny white cocoons in which 
are the future slayers of the cabbage worm. They are merely passing through 
the pupa. Quite frequently persons think that these little cocoons are the 
eggs of the butterfly and destroy them, thus increasing the number of cabbage 
worms at least 50 per cent. The eggs of the cabbage butterfly are always 
of a dark color. There are also other parasites that assist in killing a large 
number of the larvae and pupa. 

As the butterfly of the cabbage worm flies with ease, it is not any par- 
ticular advantage to use the system of rotation of crops in an attempt to 
decrease the number of worms during another season. About the only 
successful method to pursue is the one of early spraying, as it is not safe 
to use an ordinary spray after the heads are formed. Arsenate of lead may 
be used, or better still, a preparation of Paris green. Small gardeners often 
use a mosquito netting to cover the cabbage heads while they a-re forming. 

I'nder these conditions the butterflies soon leave to seek fields where 
they may deposit their eggs. In using poison, great care must be used, other- 
wise deposits will remain in the head, making it unfit for food. 

It is always noticeable that where the purple martin, bluebird, kingbird, 
wren, or orioles nest that there is a scarcity of the cabbage butterfly. Last 
year, near a cabbage garden, there was a small colony of purple martins, and 
it was noticed throughout the summer that there was a limited number of 
butterflies. A pair of house wrens that have a nest adjacent to a garden will 
keep the growing cabbage free from the green larvae. During the fall and 
winter a number of the pupa may be found on the old cabbage stalks, on weed 
stalks, among the grasses, or on the lower part of the fences. It is a white, 
funnel-sha-ped cocoon, having a sharp, needle-like point on the upper end of it. 

Along the sides are small dot like marks that help in identifying the 
pupa. By ridding the garden of trash, cabba-ge leaves, twigs and grasses, a 
number of the pupa will naturally be destroyed. One pupa destroyed in the 
fall is about the same as the destruction of 500 butterflies in June or 100,000 
of the green larvae in July. 



LIST OF FREE BULLETINS. 

Garden Insects Bulletin 4, Farmers' Institute, Springfield, 111 

Wheat Insects Bulletin 132, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C 

Insect Poison Bulletin 127, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C 

Stored Grain Insects Bulletin 156, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C 

Insect of Shade Trees Bulletin 99, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C 

Gipsy Moth Bulletin 275, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C 

Hessian Fly Bulletin 146, Experiment Station, Urbana, II 

Cornfield Ant Bulletin 131, Experiment Station, Urbana, 11 

Shade Tree Insects Bulletin 151, Experiment Station, Urbana, II 

Pests of Clover Bulletin 134, Experiment Station, Urbana, II 

Bitter Rot of Apples Bulletin 117, Experiment Station, Urbana, II 

EARTHWORM. 

The earthworm, commonly called the fish-worm, plays an important part 
in the ventilation and drainage of the soil. It also assists in the growth of 
the plants, as the roots often follow the burrows made by this worm. They 
also bring much plant food to the surface or nea-r it, and thus help In the 
fertilization of the soil. They also eat vegetable matter, and their deposits 
are often left three or four inches below the surface, thus adding humus to 
the soil. 

Earthworms are usually nocturnal in their habits. In the late evening, 
however, they may often be seen dragging bits of grass or leaves into their 
burrows. The earthworm's principal sense is the one of touch. It does not 
have any ears or eyes, but is able to distinguish the light from the dark. 
Except during very wet weather the earthworm does not leave its burrow very 
far. It finds its way back to its home again by following the scent of the 
slime it leaves in its- path. The eggs are very tiny, being found in little sacs 
near the opening of the burrow. 



72 



FARM MACHINERY. 

SIMPLE TOOLS. — Most farmers have at least a corner in a corn crib or a 
shed for the storing of such tools as, the saw, hatchet, screw driver, chisel, 
jack plane, carborundum grindstone, vise, small anvil and brace and bit. Many 
farmers also have a small forge so that they may weld the simpler breaks in 
the farm machinery. With four or five of the common tools, it is not long until 
any farmer boy can make handles for the simple tools, chicken coops, double- 
trees, yard swings, flower stands and road drags. 

A good road drag can be made by splitting a ten-foot log that is about 
twelve inches in circumference. The halves should be set on the edges and 
placed about thirty inches apart, the flat sides to be toward the team. The logs 
may be fastened together by four heavy pieces that are driven into auger holes 
in the center of the slabs. The chain to which the doubletrees are to be 
attached should have two large rings in it. In this way the clevis may be 
easily changed in getting the proper slant for the drag when it is in use. 

LEVERS. — A bar that will turn about a fixed axle is called a lever. The 
axis is generally called the fulcruv^. From the fulcrum to the weight is 
called the weight arm, and from the fulcrum to the power, the power arm. A 
weight of 200 pounds applied four feet from the fulcrum will be moved if any 
weight or power above 20 pounds is applied forty feet from the fulcrum on the 
power arm. 

A common crowbar is an example of a simple lever. A sixteen-foot 
board, one end on the ground and the other end on a three-foot box may be 
called an inclined plane. It is easier to roll a barrel of salt up an inclined 
plane that it is to lift it directly to the height of a plane. 

In the wheel and axle, the diameter of the wheel, times the power applied, 
equals the diameter of the axle, times the weight. 

A windlass or capstan is an example of the wheel and axle. 
A pulley or system of pulleys is really a movable lever. A combination of 
pulleys is often called a block and tackle. 

PLOWS. — Much of the ease with which good ploMing is done depends upon 
the shape of the plow bottom. The point of the plow should dip down so that 
the plow will go into the ground. If the point and the heel of the landside 
lie in a straight line, it will be difficult to plow at an average depth. There 
should be a dip of about three-sixteenths of an inch, that is, if a straight edge 
is laid on the bottom when the plow is turned upside down it will be a^bout 
that distance from the straight edge to where the landside joins the share. li 
is better to have a new point put on the plow than to have the much worn one 
merely sharpened. The point of a plow also turns into the land to about three- 
sixteenths of an inch. If a plow is to run level, it is necessary that the 
point farthest away from the landside have a bearing surface and especially 
is this true in a walking plow. This bearing surface should extend back nearly 
one and one-half inches from the corner of the share. When worn away the 
plow naturally will lean toward the furrow. A gang plow does not need a 
bearing surface because it is held in a level position by the framework. 

Many farmers are now using the kerosene-gasoline tractor. They can pull 
as many as ten or fifteen plows. Such a tractor may be operated by two men. 
Machines used in preparing the soil: 

Stalk Cutter jNIanure Siireader 

Plow Harrow 

Disc Roller 

Machines used in cultivating the crop: 
Cultivator Disc 

Machines used in harvesting the crop: 
Mower 
Binder 
Hay loader 
Hay tedder 
Hay rakes 





Planter 




Drill 




Hai-row 


Corn 


sheller 


Corn 


husker 


Threshing machine 


Corn 


cutter 


Hay 


press 



7Z 

CARE AND OILING. — One of the most important things to do in the care 
of a machine is to see that all the parts are in working order. The breakage 
on any machine can usually be attributed to the looseness of some part. 

When the cultivators, plows, mowers and binders are placed in the imple- 
ment shed, the polished parts should be cleaned and oiled or greased. 

HISTORY. — Every boy and girl has read the statement in history that 
Jethro Wood invented a cast-iron plow in 1816 — just ninety-eight years ago. Did 
you ever think, however that it was really the beginning of a long line of in- 
ventions in farm machinery? This invention made it possible to plow five 
acres of ground, where before but one could be done. Aside from doing a 
greater amount, the work was much better done. What would this mean? It 
simply meant that more people would move from the east to the west and 
settle in the Mississippi valley to engage in farming. It also meant that a 
greater quantity of grain of all kinds could be raised. 

At this time the only implement for cutting the grain was the cradle. 
(The cradle was a scythe with a wooden guard on it so arranged that the mower 
could throw the grain in a bunch a-s he cut it.) It was now possible for one 
man to care for twenty acres, instead of only four or five. The facts were, 
that more grain could be raised and cut than could be thresheKi, as the methods 
of threshing were very crude. 

As the reaper became more perfected, improved methods of threshing were 
used. What do you suppose would result from this increased yield of wheat. 
oats, rye and corn? Would the farmers engage in cattle raising? Would the 
prices of grain decrease en account of the increased yield? 

One plan about this time, that was discussed, was as to how the extra grains 
raised could be hauled to the eastern states to be used by the factory workers 
or could be shipped from there to buyers. At first a wagon road was begun, 
which was to extend from the east to the Mississippi river. Before it was 
completed, several canals were dug and railroads were built to take the place 
of the wagon road. It was not long after the lines of transportation were made 
that more improvements on all kinds of farm machinery occurred. 

The first corn planting was done by hand and was covered with a hoe cr 
spade. Soon a hand dropper was invented. This was followed by a corn 
plantei-, something similar to the one of today, with the exception that there 
was not any wire to check the rows. It also took two persons to do the plant- 
ing, one to do the driving and one to do the dropping. It is an interesting story 
to trace the effect of the improvements of farm machinery upon the settlement 
of the Central and Western states and how, in a way, it had to do with the 
building of railroads and the location of certain cities. By a little study of the 
problem we can have at least a general idea as to the far-reaching effects of a 
single invention, such as the gang plow, the self-binder or the corn sheller. 

From what has been said, it is very evident that the improvement of any 
farm machinery reduces the cost of producing grain. In 1830 it required about 
three hours of labor to raise one bushel of wheat, and in 1900 it required 
only one-sixth of an hour. In 1850, four hours of labor were necessary to 
produce one bushelj of corn, while in 1900 the labor for one bushel, was reduced 
to two-thirds of an hour. 

The saving of time is nearly entirely the result of the improvement of ma- 
chinery. (Farmers are now becoming as much interested in how to improve 
the soil as they have been in the past in the various forms of improved farm 
machinery. Why? Do you think that an improvement of the soil will have 
as great effect upon industries as did the improvement of machinery?) 

Suppose we now trace briefly the most common forms of machines. After 
the invention of the cast-iron plow, it was not long until the steel plow was 
rnade. Since then many kinds have been used, such as the riding plow and the 
disc plow. On large farms at the present time, the gang plow, drawn by an 
engine, is frequently used. Under favorable conditions fifty acres can be 
plowed in one day. 

Following the invention of the reaper by McCormick, came a reaper that 
had a rake that divided the grain as it was cut into bundles. This was much 



74 

better than the first reaper, but it still took a number of men to bind the 
bundles and put them in shocks as rapidly as the reaper could cut the grain. 
In about 1880, Appleby invented the self-binder. It made possible greater 
quantities of wheat, oats and rye and, at the same time, reduced the number 
of laborers in a field from twelve or fifteen to three or four. If you are inter- 
ested in the development of the improvement of machinery, trace out the de- 
velopment of the threshing machine, the corn sheller and the drills or seeders. 

In thinking about farm machinery, it is well to give some thought to the 
care of all implements. We are all aware that if machinery is left exposed to 
the sun and rain, that it will soon rust and if any of the parts are made of 
wood, that it will soon decay. The average life of a self-binder, seeder or cul- 
tivator should be at least fifteen years, with ordinary care. If left exposed to 
the weather its life is reduced to four or five years and the work done is seldom 
satisfactory. At the close of a season any machine should be well oiled on the 
wearing parts to prevent rust. It should then be stored in an implement shed 
or other dry place. 

If all farm machinery was examined regularly to see if any repairs were 
needed, much loss of time might be saved and better work be done. An imple- 
ment shed will pay for itself in two or three years' time. Show that the cost 
of the material and labor for a farm machineiy shed, according to the follow- 
ing estimate, would be $175.36: 

24 post, 8 ft. by 8 in., at 50 cents. 

25 2 by 4's, each 16 ft. 

26 2 by 4's, each 12 ft. 
42 2 by 4's, each 14 ft. 
21 2 by 4's, each 12 ft. 

2 gables, each containing 216 sq. ft. 

Roof, 20 by 4 ft. (each side). 

Wall. 152 by 8 ft. 

All of the above at $26 per M. 

Roof, 16 squares at $2. 

10 days' labor at $2. 

GASOLINE ENGINES. 

The gasoline engine is made to do many of the difficult things on the farm. 
It is a labor saver and at the same time, a money saver. Being made in prac- 
tically any horse-power, they are easily adapted to any form of service. They 
are used in operating such as a washing machine, corn sheller, fan mill, churn, 
wood saw, pumps and a dynamo. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSIONS. 

1. What are some of the things that may be done with a tractor? 

2. Which is it better to do, sow grain broadcast or use a drill? Why? 

3. Estimate the approximate cost of all kinds of farm machinery. 

4. Which is the best of the four binding twines: sisal, standard, manila 
or pure manila? 

5. After the spring work is over what should be done with the plows and 
planter? 

6. How can the rivets in a section be quickly removed? 

7. Would it be cheaper for the farmer who lives near hard roads to use 
auto wagon? 

8. Name the common parts of an automobile. 

9. Why is a gasoline preferable to a windmill? 

10. What is the average life of a self-binder? A cultivator? A wagon? 



SUGGESTIONS: 

1. Make a blackboard list of the various places that the different machiaes 
are kept during the winter? During the summer? 

2. Send to the I. H. C. Service bureau, Chicago, 111., for their booklets on 
farm machinery. 

3. Make a list of the labor-saving machines used in the home, including 
the electric iron. 

4. Name the parts of a wagon, plow (such as beam, moldboard and 
handles), selfbinder, mower and cultivator. 

5. Study the construction of an incubator by having one present. 



76 

COMPOSITION OF AIR. 

Air is the mixture of odorless, colorless and tasteless gases which sur- 
rounds the earth. It consists of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water-vapor 
and various other chemical agents. * Nitrogen and oxygen occur nearly in the 
ratio of four parts to one, i. e., nearly four-fifths of the air is nitrogen, and 
nearly one-fifth oxygen. Water-vapor and carbon dioxide occur in small and 
varying amounts. 

Oxygen is a powerful and active element which supports life an«l com- 
bustion. The carbon dioxide is the source of carbon used by growing plants. 
The other elements of which air is composed are simply inert diluents. 

AIR PRESSURE. — We are living at the bottom of an ocean of air which 
extends perhaps 100 miles above the earth. This air has weight— twelve cubic 
feet of it to one pound. This being true, it follows naturally that the air near 
the surface of the earth is subjected to a pressure which has been found to 
amount to about fifteen pounds per square inch. (We do not notice this 
pressure, because it pushes upward with about as much force as it pushes 
downward). This pressure is enough to support a column of water of the same 
size, about 32 feet high, or a column of mercury, which is 13.6 times as heavy as 
water, about thirty inches high. 

When the lower end of a tube is dipped into a liquid and the air exhausted 
from the upper end, the liquid will rise in the tube. This may be proven by 
the common illustration of drinking lemonade through a straw. The rise of 
the liquid in the exhausted tube is due to the pressure of the air upon the sur- 
face of the liquid and not to the sucking power of the vacuum, as is generally 
supposed. 

* argon, helium, neon, krypton and xenom. 

EXPERIMENTS. — Fill a tumbler with water and slide a heavy card over its 
top. Holding the card firmly in its place, invert the tumbler. If no air bubbles 
have been left below the card, it will remain pressed against the tumbler, 
keeping in the water. 

Put one end of a small glass tube into water. Close the upper end of the 
tube with the finger, and lift it out of the water. Explain what happens. 

An interesting experiment may be performed with a wide-necked bottle 
and an egg from which the shell has been carefully removed. The egg should 
fit nicely into the neck of the bottle, but should not pass through it. Put a 
piece of burning paper into the bottle. When the paper is almost consumed, 
replace the egg in the neck, and see what happens. 

The burning paper heats the air in the bottle, causing it to expand and part 
of it to leave the bottle. Since there is not sufficient resistance to the down- 
v.'ard pressure of the air the egg will be forced into the bottle. 

THE BAROMETER. — Galileo, the great Italian philosopher, discovered 
that air has weight and that a suction pump would not raise water more than 
thirty-three feet. By means of a long glass tube, and a quantity of mercury, 
Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo, proved that the pressure of the air balanced a 
column of mercury twenty-nine or thirty inches high. (33 ft. -^13. 6 the sp. g. of 
mercury. A lighter liquid than mercury will be forced correspondingly 
higher. 

Torricelli's device may be set up permanently as a mea^ns of measuring 
atmospheric pressure. It is then called a barometer. A mercurial barometer 
consists of a glass tube three or four feet long, filled with mercury, and in- 
verted, with its lower end below the surface of the mercury, in a receptacle. 
Reading a barometer is simply noting the height of the mercury column above 
the surface of the mercury in the receptacle as indicated on a graduated scale. 
If a barometer is carried to a mountain top or other high altitude the col- 
umn of mercury falls gradually, showing that atmospheric pressure decreases 
as one ascends. 

The Weather Bureau makes use of the barometer in foretelling weather 



77 

changes. The weather is related to the atmospheric pressure indicated by the 
rise and fall of the mercury, as follows: 

1. When the mercury rises, fair weather is indicated. 

2. When the mercury falls, foul weather is indicated. 

3. A sudden fall of the mercury precedes a storm. 

The aneroid (without fluid) barometer is more convenient to carry about 
than a mercurial barometer.lt consists of a circular metal box with a thin 
corrugated metal top. When the air has been partly removed from this box 
it is sealed up, making it airtight. As the pressure of the air changes, the 
thin, metallic top of the box moves in or out, to correspond. The motion of 
the top is small, therefore it is magnified by a system of levers by which the 
changes are transmitted to a pointer, which moves around a graduated dial. 
These instruments are very delicate and will show the slight difference be- 
tween the air pressure at a table top and that of the floor. 

THE LIFT PUMP. — The common lift pump was used by the ancients as 
early as the fourth century B. C, although its working was not understood. 
It consists of a cylinder which is connected with the well by a pipe. At the 
bottom of the cylinder is a valve which opens upward. A piston 
is moved up and down in the cylinder by means of a handle. This piston also 
contains a valve which opens up and the air is exhausted below the valve by 
the strokes of the piston and the air pressure on the water in the well forces 
the water up into the cylinder. The lowest valve must be within thirty-four 
feet of the surface of the water to obtain results. Why? In practice this dis- 
tance is usually about twenty-eight or thirty feet. Why? 

An effective lift pump may be made in the following manner: Take a lamp 
chimney which is used on a student lamp, and fit a cork tightly into the bottom^ 
of it. Take a spool that is of the right size to move easily up and down the 
chimney and fasten two small screw eyes into one end of it. Between these 
screw eyes fasten a wooden rod about eighteen inches long. Now cut a small 
hole in the center of the cork. Fasten a thin piece of leather about the size 
of a dime over the holes in the cork and in the spool. For this, use only one 
pin or tack, driving it as near to the edge of the leather as possible. Wind 
twine or thread around the spool so that it will form an airtight piston in the 
chimney. Insert a slender glass tube (a drinking-tube, such as is used in drug 
stores, will do) in the cork. Make the cork air-tight by covering it with par- 
afin or other wax. Now insert the tube in a basin of water and work the piston. 

If this experiment is carefully worked out it will prove very interesting 
and instructive. 

If a spool of the size needed in this experiment cannot be obtained, a cork 
cut to the right size may be substituted. 

FORCE PUMP. — In force pumps, the piston has no valve in it, and the outlet 
pipe and a second valve are at the bottom of the cylinder. When the piston is 
raised the cylinder is filled with water. Pushing the piston down forces the 
water out of the pump. The height to which water can be thrown by a force 
pump depends upon the amount of force used on the piston. 

Steam fire engines are simply powerful force pumps. 



78 

EFFECTS OF HEAT UPON BODIES. 

MATTER is that which occupies space. There are different kinds of 
matter, which are called substances, such as water, air and gold. Bodies are 
certain definite portions of these substances. 

Substances assume the state or form of gases, liquids and solids, depend- 
ent upon the kind of motion and the velocities of the molecules which com- 
pose them. 

A gas is a fluid having no independent shape or volume, that has a 
tendency to expand indefinitely, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and 
coal gas. 

The molecules of gases move in a straight line with great velocity. This 
is called the kinetic theory of ga«es and, by it, are explained many of the 
phenomena of gases. 

A solid is a body that, up to a certain limit, is capable of retaining its 
shape at ordinary temperatures and under slight pressure, such as gold, stone, 
wood and ice. 

The molecules of solids ha-ve a fixed position in relation to each other, 
find their motion is restricted to a limited space. 

A liquid is a fluid that is only slightly compressible, and not capable of 
indefinite expansion, such as water. 

The molecules of a liquid move freely upon one another in every direc- 
tion, causing it to take the sha^pe of the containing vessel. No sharp line 
can be drawn between liquids and solids, there being all gradations, as 
viscous solid, semi-solid and viscous liquid. 

The terms fluid and liquid are not synonymous, fluid being of broader 
significance and including both liquids and gases. It should be kept in mind 
that conditions of temperature and pressure determine largely the state or 
form of matter. 

EXPANSION. — The application of heat to a body produces two principal 
results. One is a change in the size of the substance, which we call expansion, 
and the other is a change in its form or physical condition. 

The following experiments may be performed to show that gases expand 
when hea?ted: 

Put a piece of glass tubing through a rubber stopper anad insert the 
stopper into an empty glass flask or bottle, which, of course, is filled with air. 
Invert the flask and hold the end of the glass tube under water. Now heat 
the flask gently and evenly on all the sides. If this experiment has been per- 
formed carefullJ^ little bubbles of air will be seen escaping from the tube, which 
proves that the air in the flask is expanding and flowing out through the tube. 

Another interesting experiment may be performed with this same appa- 
ratus. Put a drop of ink in the glass tube and insert the stopper as before. 
Apply heat to the flask, and the drop of ink will be forced up the tube by the 
expanding air. 

Air increases exactly 1/273 part of itself for each rise of 1 degree C or 
1/491 for each degree F. This fact was discovered by a Frenchman named 
Cha-rles, and from him, is called Charles' Law. 

To show that heat expands liquids, use the same apparatus as described in 
the preceding experiments: Pill the glass flask with water, and insert the 
stopper and tube so that the lower part of the tube will just reach the water. 
Tha-t water expands when it is heated may be easily determined by its action 
in the tube when heat is slowly applied to the flask. 

What causes a tea-kettle filled v.ith cold water to overflow when it is 
heated? 

Similar experiments may be made with any other liquids, such as alcohol 
or mercury. They prove that heat causes liquids as well as air to expand or 
to occupy more space. 

Solids expand when heated just as gases and liquids do. This may be 
shown by heating red hot an iron bolt or a piece of heavy wire, the length 
of which has been marked on a board or other material, and laying it on the 
measure. The hot iron will be found to be longer than it was when cold. 

A knowledge of this fact is made use of in building railroads. A space 



79 

is always left between the end of the rails to allow for the expansion of the 
steel in summer. If the steel is la-id in cold weather the gaps are much wider 
than when it is laid in hot weather. 

Tires are heated before they are set on wheels, because they are then 
bigger and will go on more easily. They contract as they cool, causing them 
to become tight on the wheel. 

Telegraph or telephone wires which are taut in winter sag greatly when the 
hot rays of the summer sun heats them. If these wires were stretched taut 
in summer they would break quickly when caused to contract by cold weather. 
Bolts used in the building of steel structures are inserted red hot and the 
taps tightened as they cool. 

Another practical illustration of this principle may be found in the 
ordinary clock, which loses time in the summer because its pendulum is 
expanded by the warm weather, causing it to swing more slowly. 

As mentioned elsewhere in this book (see Soils, p. 17), heat plays an 
important part in soil formation by splitting the rocks which are not able to 
withstand the expansion and contraction. 

The broken concrete floors and walks seen in many places show another 
result of expansion caused by heat. This result is avoided by cutting the soft 
concrete into squares, thus leaving room for expansion. 

CHANGES IN PHYSICAL CONDITIONS.— Solids may be changed into 
liquids, or liquids into gases by the application of heat. If, on a cold day, 
when the temperature is several degrees below zero, a pail of snow or ice is 
brought into a warm room, a thermometer placed in the snow will indicate 
a rise in temperature until degree C. or 32 degrees F. is reached, when it 
becomes stationary until all the snow is melted. If now the pail is put on a 
stove, the temperature will remain at 32 degrees F., but the snow will melt 
more rapidly. As soon as all the snow is melted the temperature will rise 
steadily until the water boils, and again remains stationary until the water is 
changed into vapor. 

The cha-nge from a solid to a liquid state caused by heat is called fusion 
or melting, while that from a liquid to a gaseous state is called vaporization, 
when the temperature is at the boiling point, and evaporation when below. 

EVAPORATION. — Water, gasoline, alcohol and other liquids soon disap- 
pear or evaporate when left in an open dish or an uncorked bottle. The 
warmer and drier the air is the more rapid is the evaporation, although it can 
take place at a low temperature. Wet cloths will dry more quickly on a dry, 
hot day than on a cold day. When they a-re hung out on a cold day they will 
freeze first and then soon become dry. 

When air contains all the moisture it will hold at a given temperature, it 
is said to be saturated, and evaporation is decreased. 

COOLING BY EVAPORATION.— Heat is absorbed in the process of evapo- 
ration, i. e., when a liquid evaporates its temperature and that of objects near 
it falls. The evaporation of moisture from our skin causes us to become 
cooler, and when water is sprinkled on a floor or street its evaporation lowers 
the temperature of the air and surrounding objects. 

ARTIFICIAL ICE. — A knowledge of the principles of eva-poration is made 
use of in the manufacture of ice. The water to be frozen is put in cans 
around which brine is made to circulate. Ammonia, which is a gas, at ordinary 
temperature, is forced into coils by a compressor and there liquified. During 
this process the heat of condensation is evolved, which is removed by the 
circulation of running wa-ter around the coils. The liquid ammonia is then 
allowed to pass into coils in the brine, where, under reduced pressure, it 
evaporates very rapidly. While doing this it absorbs heat from the brine, 
reducing it to a temperature of 16 degrees or 18 degrees P. At this tempera- 
ture the freezing of the water in the cans surrounded by the brine goes on 
very rapidly. 

Butter and other foods may be kept cool by putting them in porous vessels 
wrapped in wet cloths. The evaporation of the water keeps the food cool. 



80 

THE TRANSMISSION OF HEAT. 

Heat is transmitted in three ways — by conduction, radiation and convec- 
tion. 

CONDUCTION. — If one end of an iron poker is put in the fire, the poker 
will soon become hot through its entire length. When a silver spoon is put into 
Bome hot liquid, the handle becomes warm. These experiments prove that 
silver and iron are good conductors of heat, it being carried along the 
molecules by a method known as conduction. Pra-ctically all the metals are 
good conductors of heat. The heating of a flat iron on a stove is another 
example of conduction. 

On the other hand, a stick may be held in the fire until it is burned close 
to the fingers, showing that wood is a poor conductor of heat. Stone, glass, 
air, wool, fur, liquids and gases are classed with wood as poor conductors, and 
therefore are called heat insulators. 

A practical application of conduction may be seen in the Davy safety lamp, 
the thermos bottle and the refrigerator. For a description of these appliances 
the reader is referred to any good work in physics. 

CONVECTION. — Convection is the transmission of heat by means of cur- 
rents in liquids and gases resulting from changes in the temperature. For 
example, air expands and becomes lighter when heated. It is then pushed up 
by the cooler, heavier parts of the surrounding air, thus creating an ascending 
current over the source of heat and downward lateral currents in the other 
parts. These currents are called convection currents and are the basis of all 
systems of heating and ventilating buildings. 

Convection currents in a room may be tested by holding a piece of lighted 
"touch paper" in different positions and observing the direction of the currents 
indicated by the smoke. "Touch paper" is made by dipping blotting paper 
into a solution of saltpeter. It will burn without flame, but with much smoke 
when dry. 

Winds are convection currents caused by the unequal heating of the 
earth's surface. The air over a given area expands and rises while the cooler, 
heavier air rushes in to take its place. Land and sea breezes, and ocean cur- 
rents may be explained in this manner. 

HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS. — The hot water system is a very 
-ommon and effective way of heating both public buildings and private 
dwellings. The water is heated in the basement by a furnace. By means of 
convection currents it is carried through pipes to iron radiators located in the 
various rooms. It gives out its heat through these radiators to the surround- 
ing air and, when cool returns to the base of the heater. 

It is possible to provide ventilation with this system by opening air vents 
through the walls back of the radiators. 

HOT AIR SYSTEMS. — The hot air furnace is a large stove surrounded 
by a galvanized sheet iron or steel jacket. The cold from the outside air 
enters the heater at the base, is heated between the stove and the jacket and is 
then forced upward into the delivery pipes, which distribute it throughout the 
building. Taking the cold air from out of doors and removing the vitiated air 
by means of the open grate or through ducts near the floor, insures good venti- 
lation, and is an important detail that should not be overlooked in installing 
a furnace. Some persons contend that enough fresh air is admitted and foul 
air is removed through windows, doors and crevices in floors and walls. This 
may be true in the case of private dwellings, but it becomes an absurdity 
when mentioned in connection with schoolhouses, churches and other public 
buildings. 

HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS.— Heating a large room by 
means of a bare stove is very unsatisfactory indeed. It is difficult to tell which 
are the more uncomfortable, the ones who are forced to sit close to the stove, 
where they are too warm, or the ones who are so far away that they are too 
cold. An attempt to remedy this situation was made by placing an iron or 
steel jacket around the stove, thus making use of the convection currents. 
This wss a decided improvement, but still had many defects. The modern 
heating and ventilating systems, many of which are now in the market, seem 



81 

to have solved all the problems connected with heating a^nd ventilating public 
buildings. They are simple in construction, and, in brief, consist of a large 
stove, surrounded by a jacket, which is set in & corner of the room to be 
heated. A fresh air intake which connects with the heater from outside of 
the building, gives a plentiful supply of fresh, pure air. This air is heated 
inside the jacket and is forced up to the ceiling and thence to all parts of the 
room. As it cools it sinks to the floor and is removed by a foul air outlet 
near the floor. This system gives an equal distribution of heat to all parts of 
the room, and, best of all, insures pure, clean air for breathing. 

RADIATION. — One can feel the heat coming from all sides of a hot stove. 
Since the air currents are moving toward the stove, and since air is a poor 
conductor of heat, this phenomena cannot be explained by conduction or con- 
vection. This third method by which heat is transmitted from one body to 
another is called radiation. The earth receives heat from the sun by radia- 
tion. 

The following Laws of Radiation have been carefully worked out: 

1. Radiation takes place through a vacuum as well as through air. Ex- 
ample: Heat from the sun or an incandescent lamp bulb. 

2. Radiation takes place from a heated body in straight lines. Proof: 
Radiation may be cut ofl; by placing a screen between the source of heat and 
the body receiving it. 

3. The rate of radiation is proportional to the temperature of the source. 

4. Radiation may pass through a medium without heating it. Proof: The 
upper regions of the air are always very cold, but radiant heat from the sun 
passes through them. 



82 

SIPHONS. 

A siphon is a bent tube with arms of unequal length used for transferring 
a liquid from one vessel over its edge to one at a lower level. This is done 
by atmospheric pressure, the liquid being forced upward through the short arm 
of the siphon and carried downward by its own weight. A familiar example 
of the siphon is one made from the fork of the hollow Jimson weed, one arm 
being longer than the other. By placing the short arm below the surface of 
the water and sucking on the other arm, the water will begin to flow and con- 
tinue until it is below^ the end of the short arm. (Why is it necessary to suck 
on the end of the long tube?) A flexible rubber tube makes a very good siphon. 
If this tube is filled with water before it is placed in position, it will not be 
necessa-ry to "suck" on the outlet. Why? Siphons are used for emptying 
vessels which cannot be overturned and for removing the upper portion of a 
liquid without disturbing the lower portion. A siphon cannot raise water more 
than thirty feet. Why? 

Large siphons are used extensively in engineering projects to carry water 
from one level to another. Unless the water to be removed is open to atmos- 
pheric pressure the siphon will not work. 

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF MATERIAL 
FOR USE IN THE STUDY OF AGRICULTURE. 

Collections of seeds, plants and wood specimens, and other materials useful 
in the study of agi'iculture, may be obtained in almost any locality. The collec- 
lection of these specimens affords an opportunity to teach their identification 
and their relations to soil and climate. 

Care should be taken to make such work constructive, rather than de- 
structive. 

WHAT TO COLLECT: 

1. Plants of value to the farmer. 

2. Injurious plants and weeds. 

3. Seeds of plants valuable to farmer. 

4. Weed seeds. 

5. Collection of wood specimens and leares to show characteristics of the 
trees from which they are taken. 

6. Collections of fungi. 

7. Beneficial insects. 

8. Injurious insects. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND ARRANGING MATERIALS. 

For collecting plant specimens, a covered box such as a shoe box, is neces- 
sary. The specimens should be labeled accurately when collected to avoid 
confusion in identification later. They should then be pressed and mounted in 
some permanent way so that they may be used when needed. 

Small cloth bags or ordinary paper envelopes may be used in collecting 
seeds. Each bag or envelope containing seeds should have written upon it the 
name of the plant from which the sample is taken, together with the date, 
locality and other data desired. 

After the seeds are collected they should be cleaned and treated with 
carbon bisulphid or with formaldehyde to kill any insects which may be about 
them. 

To do this, put the seeds in a receptacle. Then pour enough of the disin- 
fectant on a piece of cotton to wet it thoroughly. Place the wet cotton on a 
saucer in the receptacle with the seeds and cover the receptacle tightly so that 
the fumes will not escape. Keep fire away from the carbon bisulphid. 

One of the simplest methods of mounting seeds for study or display is to 
put them in small glass vials of uniform size and then place the vials in a 



83 

strong, cardboard box with a separate compartment for each vial. If it is in- 
convenient to get such a box the vials may be fastened to a piece of board by 
means of shoe laces. 

Another holder is made by sewing strips upon a rectangular piece o£ 
cloth so as to form rows of pockets, each pocket being just large enough for 
one of the vials. 

Wood specimens should be collected in autumn. At this season there is 
less sap in the wood, and the fruit and leaves aid in identifying the specimen. 
Cut a section five or six inches long from a branch that is two or three inches 
in diameter. Try to find a branch the bark of which is characteristic of the 
tree. After writing the name on each specimen, put them away until they are 
thoroughly seasoned. By gluing heavy paper over the ends of the wood the 
checking, which occurs in dry wood, will be lessened. 

When the wood is thoroughly seasoned, split off one side to a depth equal 
to about one-third of the diameter to show the grain. Then cut one end of the 
blocE squarely across and slope the other at an angle of about forty-five degrees 
from the bark out to the flat face. Screw eyes may then be inserted in one end 
of the wood by which it may be hung on nails in a cabinet or on the wall. 
Each specimen should be labeled with the scientific and common name of the 
tree from which it was taken. 

The split or sawed surface of wood specimens should be scraped with the 
sharp edge of a piece of glass, sand papered and treated with linseed oil. The 
oil will bring out the colors and grain of the wood more clearly, and will pre- 
vent cracking of the wood. 



84 

SCHOOL GARDENS AND SCHOOL YARDS. 

In many rural communities the home gardens are such that it would 
seem that a school garden would not be necessary. A school garden, however, 
can be of much moment in any community, as it gives an opportunity for a 
study of the soil, method of planting and testing seeds and the cultivation of 
special types of seeds. Aside from the common garden seeds experiments can 
t>e made with such crops as alfalfa, corn or wheat. Garden or flower seeds may 
be obtained free by any teacher from the Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 

It is suggested that something definite be done each year in the way of 
beautifying the school grounds. The planting of flowers, shrubs, vines and 
trees in a definite natural way is known as landscape gardening. Trees and 
shrubs may be set out either in the fall or in the spring. For ornamental pur- 
poses it is not best to set trees in rows and especially upon school grounds. 
Shrubs should be placed near the building or in masses along the walks. Cata- 
logues should be procured from seed houses and from nurserymen. Among the 
nurserymen that may be mentioned are: 

Swain Nelson Co Chicago, 111. 

A. M. Augustine Normal, 111. 

Wm. A. Peterson Chicago, 111. 

C. H. Webster Centralia, 111. 

Below is a list of shrubs. (In many places wild shrubs may be set out 
on the school grounds.) 

dog wood ' . choke berry 

elder viburnum 

arrow wood dwarf blue berry 

sumach 

The arbor and bird day book of 1914 contains many suggestions as to 
planting shrubs. It may be obtained free by addressing State Superintendent 
F. G. Blair, Springfield, 111. 

FREE BULLETINS. 

Forestry in Nature Study Bulletin 468, Dept., of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. .Bulletin 99, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

School Gardening Bulletin 218, Dept. of Agri., Washington. D. C. 

Testing Seeds Bulletin 428, Dept. of Agri., Washington. D. C. 

Arbor Day Bulletin 96, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

Tree Planting Bulletin 134, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. 

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN ONE TON OF PEED STUFFS. 

Digestible Nutrients. 
Dry 
Kind of Feed. Matter. 

Alfalfa hay 1832 

Sugar beets 270 

Buckwheat bran 1790 

Buckwheat grain 1748 

Carrots 22S 

Clover hay 1694 

Corn and Cob Meal 1698 

Corn fodder, green 414 

Corn, grain 1782 

Corn Kiia-ge 418 

Corn fodder, dry 1156 





Carbohy- 


otein. 


drates. 


220 


864 


22 


208 


148 


694 


154 


1066 


16 


166 


136 


792 


88 


1330 


20 


250 


158 


1528 


18 


258 


50 


746 



366 


1134 


516 


1362 


744 


888 


72 


264 


62 


130 


58 


118 


78 


130 


24 


808 


184 


1136 


198 


1402 


12 


830 


592 


1094 


204 


1460 


244 


906 


8 


744 


56 


932 



85 

Cowpeas • ■ 1704 

Gluten meal 1836 

Cotton seed meal • • . . . 1836 

Whole milk 256 

Skim mirk (gravity) 192 

Skim milk (centi'ifugal) 198 

Buttermilk 198 

Oat Straw 1816 

Oats, grain 1780 

Rye, grain 176S 

Rye straw 1858 

Soy beans 1784 

Wheat, grain 1790 

Wheat bran 1762 

Whea t straw 1808 

Timothy hay 1736 

STANDARD FEEDING RATIONS. 
(Wolff-Lehmann.) 

Showing approximate amounts of nutrients required per 1,000 pounds live 
weight for a day's feeding: 
Animal. 



>> . = 



Fattening Swine: 

First period 36 

Second period 32 

Third period 25 

Oxen: 

At rest in stall 18 

At medium work 25 

At heavy work 28 

Fattening Cattle: 

First period 30 

Second period 30 

Third period 26 

Milch Cows: 

Giving 11 lbs. milk a day. ... 25 

Giving 161/2 lbs. milk a day. . 27 

Giving 22 lbs. milk a day 29 

Giving 27% lbs. milk a day. . 32 
Sheep : 

Coarse wool 20 

Fine wool 23 

Breeding ewes, with lambs. . 25 
Fattening Sheep: 

First period 30 

Second period 28 

Horses : 

Light work 20 

Medium work 24 

Heavy work 26 

Brood Sows 22 2.5 15.5 0.4 35,170 1:6.6 



p 


OS 

o 




> 5 




4.5 


25.0 


0.7 


57,800 


1: 5.9 


4.0 


24.0 


0.5 


.54,000 


1: 6.3 


2.7 


18.0 


0.4 


40,200 


1: 7.0 


0.7 


8.0 


0.1 


16,600 


1:11.7 


2.0 


11.5 


0.5 


27,200 


1: 6.3 


2.8 


13.0 


0.8 


32,755 


1: 5.3 


2.5 


15.0 


0.5 


34,650 


1: 6.4 


3.0 


14.5 


9.7 


35,000 


1: 5.4 


2.7 


15.0 


0.7 


35,900 


1: 6.1 


1.6 


10.0 


0.3 


22,850 


1: 8.7 


2.0 


11. 


0.4 


25,850 


1: 6.0 


2.5 


13.0 


0.5 


30,950 


1: 5.6 


3.3 


13.0 


0.8 


33,700 


1: 4.5 


1.2 


10.5 


0.2 


22,600 


1: 9.2 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


26,400 


1: 8.5 


2.9 


15.0 


0.^ 


35.400 


1: 5.5 


3.0 


15.0 


0.5 


35,600 


1: 5.4 


3.5 


14.5 


0.6 


36,000 


1: 4.5 


1.5 


9.5 


0.4 


22,150 


1: 6.9 


2.0 


11.0 


0.6 


26.700 


1: 6.2 


2.5 


13.3 


0.8 


32,750 


1. 8.0 



86 



LEGAL WEIGHT PER BUSHEL. 

Barley 48 lbs. 

Beans 60 lbs. 

Blue Grass Seed 14 lbs. 

Bran 20 lbs. 

Buckwheat 52 lbs. 

Clover Seed 60 lbs. 

Corn in car, husked 70 lbs. 

Corn (shelled) 56 lbs. 

Corn Meal 48 lbs. 

Oats 1 32 lbs. 

Onions j 57 lbs. 

Sweet Potatoes 50 lbs. 

Irish Potatoes 60 lbs. 

Rye 56 lbs. 

Fine Salt 55 lbs. 

Coarse Salt 50 lbs. 

Timothy Seed 45 lbs. 

Turnips 55 lbs. 

Wheat 60 lbs. 



QUANTITY OF SEED NEEDED FOR AN ACRE. 

Alfalfa 25 lbs. 

Blue Grass 25 lbs. 

Brown Corn 35 lbs. 

Cabbage 1 lbs. 

Red Clover 16 lbs. 

Cowpeas 75 lbs. 

Oats 80 lbs. 

Red Top 14 lbs. 

Soy Beans 80 lbs. 

Timothy 20 lbs. 

Wheat 80 lbs. 



FARM PAPERS. 

(There should be a farm paper on the library table of both rural and city 
schools.) 

Prairie Farmer Chicago, 111. 

Farm Journal Philadelphia, Pa. 

Indiana Farmer Indianapolis, Ind. 

Wallace's Farmer Des Moines, Iowa 

Farm and Fireside Springfield, Ohio 

Orange Judd Farmer Chicago, 111. 

Farmer's Review Chicago, 111. 

Farmer's Wife Minneapolis, Minn. 

The Farm Home Springfield, 111. 

Country Gentleman Philadelphia, Pa. 

Successful Farming Des Moines, Iowa 

Farmer's Wife St. Paul, Minn. 

Missouri Valley Farmer Topeka, Kans. 

Breeders' Gazette Chicago, 111. 

Wisconsin Agriculturist Racine, Wis. 

Ohio Farmer Cleveland, Ohio 

Iowa Homestead Des Moines, la. 

Colman's Rural World ._ St. Louis, Mo. 



pD 



^ri^-\ 



87 

Units that should be memorized so that they may be used on a moment'* 
notice : 

486^number of cents in an English pound. 
.866=altitude of 1 ft. equilateral triangle. 
l]^=di. of a silver dollar in inches. 
412y2=weight of a silver dollar in grains. 
25.8=weight of a gold dollar. 
13.6=specific gravity of mercury. 
22J^=No. of bricks for a cu. ft. 
128=cu. ft. in a cord. 
114— cu. ft. in a bushel of small grain. 
1 4/9=cu. ft. in a bushel of ea-r corn. 
18i/^=di. in inches of a bushel measure. 
.7854=No. used in finding area of circle. 
2150. 4=No. of cu. in. in a bu. of small grain. 
3888=No. of cu. in. in a bu. of ear corn. 
2067=value in cents of an ounce of gold. 
31i^=gallons in a barrel. 
100=links in chadn. 
640=acres in section. 
5760=grain in 1 lb. Av. 
.5760=grains in 1 lb. Troy. 
16%=ft. in a rod. 
3014 =sq. yd. in a sq. rd. 
7.92=in. in a link. 

4:=inches in a hand. 
62%=pounds in a cu. ft. of water. 
1.4142=diagonal of a 1 ft. square. 
231=cu. in, in a gallon. 
1.732=diagonal of a 1 ft. cube. 
43560=sq. ft. in 1 acre. 

100=cu. ft. in cord of stone. 
7%=gallons in 1 cu. ft. 
550=cu. ft. in 1 ton loose clover hay. 
400=cu. ft. in 1 ton mixed hay that is settled. 
343=cu. ft. in 1 ton compact hay. 
3 . 1416=circumference of a 1 ft. circle. 
9=:sq. ft. in 1 sq. yd. 
27=cu. ft. in 1 cu. yd. 
2240=No. of lbs. in a large ton. 

i4=the a-rea of an inscribed square is % of a circumscribed square. 
9=No. of shingles to a sq. ft. when laid 4 in. to weather. 
22i^=No. of brick to a cu. ft. 

24=a roll of paper is 24 ft. by U^ ft. 
18%=diameter of a cylindrical bu. measure. 

.7071=line parallel to base of triangle and dividing it into 2 equal parts. 
268.8==cu. in. in a dry gallon. 
19.36=specific gravity of gold. 



88 

LIST OF BOOKS. 

1. Elementary Principles of Agriculture — Ferguson and Lewis — Ferguson 

Pub. Co., Chicago. 

2. Beginnings in Agriculture — Mann — The Macmlllan Co., Chicago. 

3. Elements of Agriculture — Warren — The Macmlllan Co., Chicago. 

4. Productive Farming — Davis — J. B. Llppincott & Co., Philadelphia. 

5. Agriculture for Beginners — Burkett, Stevens & Hill — Glnn & Co., Chicago. 

6. Elementary Agriculture — Nida — A. Flanagan & Co., Chicago. 

7. Practical Agriculture — James — D. Appleton & Co., Chicago. 

8. One Hundred Lessons in Agriculture — Nolan — Row, Peterson & Co., Chi- 

cago. 

9. I. C. S. Farmer's Handbook — International Text Book Co., Scranton, Pa. 

10. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture — Hopkins — Ginn & Co., Chicago. 

11. Elementary Agriculture — Hatch & Haselwood — Row, Peterson & Co., Chi- 

cago. 

12. Farm Friends and Farm Foes — Weed— Ginn & Co., Chicago. 

13. First Principles of Agriculture — Goff & Mayne — American Book Co., Chi- 

cago. 

14. Fungous Diseases of Plants — Duggar — Glnn & Co., Chicago. 

15. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals — Plumb — Ginn & Co., Chicago. 
3 6. The Principles of Breeding — E. Davenport — Ginn & Co., Chicago. 

17. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture (4 volumes) — L. H. Bailey — The Mac- 

mlllan Co., Chicago. 

18. Physics of Agriculture — King — F. H. King, Madison, Wis. 

19. How to Keep Hens for Profit — Valentine — The Macmlllan Co., Chicago. 

20. Practical Na-ture-Study and Elementary Agriculture — Coulter & Patterson 

— D. Appleton & Co. 

21. Eleven Studies in Horticulture — Blair. Twelve Studies in Farm Animals 

— E. Davenport. Twelve Studies in Agriculture — E. Davenport — 
C. M. Parker, Taylorville, III. 

22. Story of the Soil — Hopkins — Gorham Press, Boston. 

23. Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them — Keeler — Charles Scribner's 

Sons. 

24. Trees that Every Child Should Know — Rogers — Doubleday, Page & Co. 

25. Grasshopper Green's Garden — Schwartz — Little, Brown & Co., Boston. 

26. How to Know the Wild Flowers — Dana — Charles Scribner's Sons. 

27. Flyaways and Other Seed Travelers — Fultz — Public School Pub. Co., 

Bloomington. 

28. Garden-Making — Bailey — The Macmlllan Co. 

29. The Farm and the Dairy — Sheldon— The Macmilla-n Co. 

30. Milk and Its Products — Wing— The Macmlllan Co. 

31. The Diseases of Animals — Mays — The Macmlllan Co. 

32. Forage Crops — Voorhees — The Macmlllan Co. 

33. Plant Diseases — Massee — The Macmlllan Co. 

34. Diseases of Plants — Ward — The Macmlllan Co. 

35. Farm Machinery — Davidson & Chase — Orange Judd Co., Chicago. 

36. The Book of Alfalfa— Coburn— Orange .ludd Co., Chicago. 

37. Plants and Animals Under Domestication — Darwin — D. Appleton Co., Chi- 

cago. 

38. Corn Plants — Sargent — The Macmlllan Co. 

39. The Potato— Fraser—The Macmlllan Co. 

40. An Introduction to Agriculture — Upham^D. Appleton & Co., Chicago. 

41. Principles of Agriculture — Bailey — Macmlllan Co. 

42. How to Make School Gardens — Hemenway — Doubleday, Page & Co. 

43. Nature Study and Life — Hodge — Ginn & Co. 

44. The Study of Nature — Schmucker — J. B. Llppincott & Co. 

45. Special Methods in Elementary Science — C. A. McMurry — Macmlllan Co. 

46. Corn Plants: Their Uses and Ways of Life — Sargent — Houghton, Mifflin 

& Co. 

47. Feeds and Feeding — W. A. Henry — Madison, Wis. 

48. Poultry Craft — Robinson — Farm Poultry Publishing Co., Boston. 



o 









y 










'■■-t.^Vv>',. ^ 




V- 


'< ^c V^' 




x^ -Ci. 


'^ "" 











O 







00B8S BROS. 

liaMANr aiNDINa 'i,- 



V"\ ST. AUGUSTINE 






^^ 



/\,;^y/%fS ^^^% 










